History Notes
French Expansion and Conflict
The French expanded into Virginia, building a fort on land claimed by the Virginia governor.
A 21-year-old surveyor (George Washington) was sent to order the French to leave, but they refused.
Washington returned with militia and Native Americans led by Half-King to attack the French fort.
The Native Americans killed French prisoners, and some escaped to alert the French army.
The French retaliated and forced Washington to sign a document admitting responsibility for a diplomat’s death, igniting the French and Indian War.
The French and Indian War
The French initially won due to a stronger army and Native American alliances.
William Pitt became British Prime Minister and sent professional British troops, turning the war in favor of Britain.
The Treaty of Paris ended the war: the French left American territories and moved to Canada.
Post-War Tensions and British Policies
American colonists wanted to expand westward, but Britain passed the Proclamation of 1763, banning settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.
Britain imposed taxes on the colonies to help pay for war debts, starting with the Sugar Act (American Revenue Act) and then the Stamp Act (tax on printed goods).
American resistance escalated with boycotts and the formation of the Sons of Liberty, who used intimidation tactics.
Escalation Toward Revolution
In response to colonial unrest, Britain sent 2,000 soldiers to Boston and passed the Quartering Act, forcing colonists to house and feed troops.
Tensions led to the Boston Massacre, where British soldiers fired into a crowd, killing five.
The Tea Act gave the East India Tea Company a monopoly, leading to the Boston Tea Party, where colonists destroyed large quantities of tea.
British Retaliation and Colonial Unity
The Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts) closed Boston’s port and demanded repayment for the tea until responsible parties were turned in.
Colonists viewed the Coercive Acts as collective punishment and responded by forming the First Continental Congress.
The Continental Congress organized a boycott of British goods and founded a new colonial government, which Britain viewed as treason.
Key Terms & Definitions
Surveyor — a person who measures land and defines property boundaries.
Militia — citizen soldiers, not professional army members.
French and Indian War — North American conflict between Britain and France (aka Seven Years’ War).
Proclamation of 1763 — law preventing colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains.
Sugar Act — British tax on sugar and molasses.
Stamp Act — British tax on all printed materials in the colonies.
Sons of Liberty — colonial resistance group against British policies.
Quartering Act — required colonists to house and feed British soldiers.
Boston Massacre — confrontation where British soldiers killed five colonists.
Tea Act — law giving East India Tea Company exclusive rights to sell tea in the colonies.
Boston Tea Party — colonists’ protest destroying British tea shipments.
Coercive Acts — British laws closing Boston’s port and punishing colonists.
Continental Congress — assembly formed by colonists to coordinate resistance.
Early Warning and British Plans
American patriots create the “alarm riders” to spread news of British troop movements.
General Gage’s wife, an American, serves as a spy for the patriots.
Gage is ordered to seize weapons at Concord and arrest Samuel Adams and John Hancock.
The Alarm Riders and First Conflicts
Alarm riders, notably Paul Revere, warn militias of British movements, but actually say “the regulars are coming.”
Minutemen gather at Lexington to confront the British.
Tensions escalate; a shot is fired, leading to fighting and British casualties.
British march to Concord, then retreat under American militia attacks along the road.
Olive Branch Petition and Building an Army
Americans send the Olive Branch Petition to King George III offering peace.
Congress forms a Continental Army and chooses George Washington as commander for unity.
Washington is selected partly due to his Virginia origins and commanding presence.
The Battle of Bunker (Breed’s) Hill
Americans fortify Breed’s Hill overlooking Boston Harbor.
British assault the hill multiple times, finally succeed after Americans run out of ammunition.
Although the British win the hill, they suffer heavy losses—a Pyrrhic victory.
The Declaration of Independence
King George rejects peace, declaring the colonists traitors.
Only about 30% of Americans support independence (patriots); others are loyalists or indifferent.
A committee (Franklin, Adams, Jefferson, Sherman) drafts the Declaration of Independence, with Jefferson as the main author.
Jefferson’s draft blames the king to unite colonists’ anger.
Divisions Among Colonists and British Mistakes
Colonists divided: patriots, loyalists (Tories), and indifferent (including many slaves).
Loyalists fear losing British protection, possible retribution, and uncertainty if Americans win.
British hire Hessian (German mercenary) soldiers, further alienating colonists.
Turning Points and Foreign Allies
Thomas Paine writes “Common Sense,” making the case for independence accessible.
Washington’s surprise attack at Trenton boosts morale after losses in New York.
British plan to cut off New England fails at Saratoga due to poor coordination.
American victory at Saratoga convinces France to ally with the U.S.
Key Terms & Definitions
Alarm Riders — Messengers who warned colonists of British troop movements.
Minutemen — Colonial militia ready to fight at a minute’s notice.
Olive Branch Petition — Last American attempt at peace with Britain.
Pyrrhic Victory — A win with devastating cost to the victor.
Declaration of Independence — Document declaring the colonies’ separation from Britain.
Patriot — Colonist supporting independence.
Loyalist (Tory) — Colonist loyal to Britain.
Hessian — German mercenary soldier hired by Britain.
Common Sense — Thomas Paine’s pamphlet advocating independence.
Valley Forge Hardships
Soldiers at Valley Forge suffered from lack of supplies, food, and clothing during winter.
Some soldiers resorted to eating snakes, tree bark, leather, and even pets due to starvation.
Washington had soldiers buried away from camp to prevent demoralization.
Martha Washington visited Valley Forge, providing support and comfort to George Washington.
American Naval Victories and Symbols
John Paul Jones became the first American naval hero after defeating the British, famously stating, “I have not yet begun to fight.”
The “Don’t Tread on Me” flag became a powerful American symbol during naval battles.
Americans began to rally around symbols and motivational sayings during the war.
The War Moves South
The British moved the war to the South due to more Loyalists, better ports, and the promise of freedom to slaves who fought for Britain.
The Southern campaign was characterized by brutal guerrilla warfare, with militia units fighting instead of regular troops.
Francis Marion, nicknamed the Swamp Fox, led guerrilla attacks; the British commander “Bloody” Banastre Tarleton was infamous for brutality.
Hillbillies (mountain people) fought at battles like Kings Mountain, defending their land fiercely.
The End of the Revolution
British General Cornwallis was trapped at Yorktown by Washington’s army and the French navy, leading to surrender and the end of major fighting.
The Revolution officially ended with the Peace of Paris treaty.
Effects on Different Groups
Native Americans who sided with the British lost their land quickly; those who sided with Americans lost land more slowly.
African Americans who fought for the British were taken to England or Nova Scotia as promised, but southern slaveholders became more oppressive.
The postwar era promoted the idea of women as pure and worth defending, partly to motivate future soldiers.
Americans developed a strong attachment to symbols, especially flags.
Peace of Paris Treaty
Recognized America as free and sovereign.
British agreed to leave America at “all convenient speed,” with no firm deadline.
Americans promised to consider restoring loyalist (Tory) property.
The U.S. allowed British merchants to seek repayment from Americans, but offered no government assistance.
Articles of Confederation and Early Problems
The Articles of Confederation created a weak central government with no power to tax or maintain an army.
States controlled their own currency, causing confusion and economic instability.
Any amendments to the Articles required unanimous consent, making change nearly impossible.
Spain controlled the lower Mississippi and blocked U.S. trade, demanding taxes for access.
England kept soldiers in America, claiming Americans violated the treaty by blocking debt payments.
Trade was problematic; states could tax imports but the federal government could not, allowing cheap British goods to flood the market and harm the U.S. economy.
Key Terms & Definitions
Valley Forge — Site of severe winter encampment for Continental Army, marked by hardship.
Guerrilla Warfare — Hit-and-run tactics used by militias in the South.
Swamp Fox — Nickname for Francis Marion, famed leader of southern militia.
Peace of Paris — Treaty that officially ended the American Revolution.
Articles of Confederation — First governing document of the U.S., creating a weak federal government.
Tariff — Tax on imported goods.
The French Revolution and Its Effects
France, suffering from famine and debt, undergoes the French Revolution, resulting in the execution of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.
The Reign of Terror follows, with 40,000 people executed for being “not revolutionary enough.”
American founding fathers are divided: Washington and Adams oppose the revolution; Jefferson and Madison support it.
Napoleon ultimately ends the French Revolution and takes control of France.
U.S. Foreign Policy Under Washington
France and England go to war; the U.S. is pressured to take sides.
Washington declares neutrality to avoid entangling alliances or future revenge from either nation.
France sends Genet to recruit Americans to fight for them, causing diplomatic tensions.
England, believing the U.S. supports France, attacks American ships.
Domestic Unrest: The Whiskey Rebellion
Western farmers protest the federal whiskey tax, starting the Whiskey Rebellion.
Washington personally leads 13,000 troops to suppress the revolt, proving federal authority; the rebellion ends peacefully.
Jay’s Treaty and Its Consequences
John Jay negotiates a treaty with England: British agree to stop attacking U.S. ships, pay for damages, and allow Caribbean trade, but don’t rule out future attacks.
The treaty is criticized and seen as weak, marking the first major public criticism of Washington.
Washington’s Farewell Address
Washington warns against permanent alliances, urging America to decide foreign relations case by case.
He warns that political parties will divide and harm the nation.
Rise of Political Parties & Election of 1796
Two political parties emerge: Federalists (pro-England, pro-rich; led by Hamilton) and Republicans (pro-France, pro-poor; led by Jefferson and Madison).
In the 1796 election, John Adams (Federalist) becomes President, and Thomas Jefferson (Republican) becomes Vice President.
President and Vice President were from opposing parties due to election rules.
Key Terms & Definitions
French Revolution — Uprising in France leading to the execution of the monarchy and widespread violence.
Reign of Terror — Period during the French Revolution with mass executions of perceived enemies.
Jay’s Treaty — 1794 agreement between the U.S. and Britain to resolve outstanding issues and prevent war.
Whiskey Rebellion — 1794 protest by western farmers against a federal tax on whiskey.
Farewell Address — Washington’s speech advising against permanent alliances and warning of political parties.