psc notes 2
Why Congress matters
Article I makes Congress the “first branch” → Framers expected it to be the strongest.
Power to make laws, tax, spend, declare war.
Framers also feared concentrated power, so they built in obstacles.
How a Bill Becomes a Law
Bill introduced in House or Senate.
Sent to committee → hearings, research, amendments.
Most bills die in committee.
If passed, goes to floor of that chamber.
Voted on → must pass by majority.
Sent to the other chamber (House ↔ Senate).
If both pass, but versions differ → conference committee resolves differences.
Final bill sent to President.
President signs = law.
President vetoes = returns to Congress.
Congress can override with 2/3 in both chambers.
Big picture: The process is designed to be slow.
Enumerated vs. Implied Powers
Enumerated powers (Art. I, Sec. 8): taxation, regulating commerce, declaring war, raising armies, post offices, money, etc.
Implied powers: elastic/necessary & proper clause → lets Congress stretch power when needed.
House vs. Senate
House of Representatives
Larger (435 members).
2-year terms → more responsive to public opinion.
More formal rules, limited debate.
Majority party dominates.
Senate
Smaller (100 members).
6-year terms → more insulated from short-term politics.
Unlimited debate unless cloture (60 votes) ends it.
Filibuster gives minority party power to block.
Obstacles to Passing Laws
Committees: where most bills die.
Bicameralism: both chambers must pass the same text.
Filibuster (Senate): can block bills without 60 votes for cloture.
Presidential veto: can only be overridden by 2/3.
Judicial review: courts can strike down laws.
Partisanship & polarization: gridlock common.
Public opinion & interest groups: shape or stall legislation.
Constitutional Design
Framers deliberately made Congress slow and deliberative, not efficient.
Aim = prevent rash laws and balance majority rule with minority rights.
“Checks and balances” means lawmakers must compromise.