INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

• what is psychology?

  • study of people’s thoughts, feelings & behavior

  • focuses on the development of human personality, brain development and how individuals perceive information from their senses

  • also examines mental disorders

  • is the scientific study that seeks to describe, explain, predict & control behavior & mental processes

• questions from psychologists

  • what is the mind

  • what is its relation to the brain

  • if the mind and the brain are not the same thing but are somehow related, how do you study what you cannot see?

  • what roles do biology (nature) and the environment (nurture) play in complex human behaviors?

  • how does the mind develop and change over time?

  • who am i? why do i behave the way i do?

  • why do humans have such similar ways of thinking and acting?

  • how do changes (technological, societal, political, etc) affect our individual and collective perceptions?

• what psychologists do

  • studies of individuals as well as groups

  • counseling

    • addictions

    • psychosis

    • neurosis

  • animal psychology

  • experimentation

• there are two styles of practice

  • experimental psychology: conducts research, develops theories and tests the theories

  • clinical psychology: applying the disciplines of scientific knowledge to help people, organizations and communities function better

• biological psychology - studies the role of biological processes & heredity in explaining behavior

• evolutionary psychology - studies the role of inherited tendencies that have proven adaptive in humans

• psychology is comprised of six main areas

  • structuralism

  • functionalism

  • psychoanalysis

  • behaviorism

  • humanism

  • cognitive psychology

• each type represents a different perspective on how we can best understand human behavior

• structuralism

  • founded by william wundt

  • tries to observe the inner workings of the mind

  • does this by conducting experiments on;

    • sensation

    • perception

    • attention

  • subjects were asked to examine their thoughts and describe everything they went through their minds (introspection)

  • in short: structuralism is the analysis of basic elements that create the mind

• functionalism

  • founded by william james

  • was impressed by how people adapted their behavior to the needs of their surroundings

  • example: behaving professionally during interviews

  • believed that mental characteristics developed and allowed people to survive by solving problems

  • functionalism studies the function of the mind and the development of children

  • it looks at;

    • how the mind operates

    • how the mental processes promote adaptations

    • how learning and education could be improved

    • how men and women behave differently

• psychoanalysis

  • develop by sigmund freud

  • examination of patient’s inner mind

  • attempts to understand a person’s unconscious mind

  • the unconscious mind continues to influence our behavior and experience even though we are unaware of these underlying influences

  • is a process designed to uncover patients’ unconscious thoughts by encouraging them to discuss their background, feelings and experiences with a trained psychologist

  • major argument: behavior is determined by unconscious conflicts based on childhood events

  • this is less common now

• behavioral psychology

  • founded john watson

  • argue that since the mind itself cannot be observed

  • behavior was the only thing that can be observed and recorded

  • therefore behaviorism is the study of how humans and animals react to the environment

  • behavior is learned as a consequence of the effects of environment (punishment and rewards)

• humanism

  • was a reaction to behaviorism and psychoanalysis

  • developed in the 1950s

  • emphasizes on the unique qualities of human beings

  • focusing on the freedom and potential for personal growth

  • behavior is a function of “free will” and striving towards self actualization

  • humans make choices, people control their lives

• cognitive psychology

  • is the study of the mental processes involved in memory, learning and thinking

  • studies how people;

    • perceive and deal with their environment

    • how people learn and remember

    • how humans reason and make decisions

  • cognitive activities include emotions, feelings, thoughts, dreams, perceptions and memories

• types of defense mechanisms

  • repression - removing anxiety by pushing it into the unconscious

    • ex. can’t remember a traumatic event that happened in your life

  • denial - blocking external events from awareness; refusing to accept it

    • ex. denying that you have an addiction to something

  • regression - reverting to a less mature way of handling stress or feelings

    • ex. you’re roommate and you get into a fight so you stomp off into another room and pout

  • projection - attributing your own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else or something else

    • ex. you’re jealous of your best friend, but claim that your best friend is jealous of you

  • displacement - channeling a feeling or thought from its actual source to something or someone else

    • ex. you get mad at your sister, so you throw your glass of milk at the wall

  • reaction formation - adopting beliefs, attitudes, and feelings contrary to what you really believe

    • ex. when you say you're not angry when you really are

  • altruism - handling your own pain by helping others

    • ex. after your partner dies, you keep yourself busy by volunteering with your community

  • humor - focusing on funny aspects of a painful situation

    • ex. you break up with your ex and you laugh at how much time you wasted with them

  • sublimation - redirecting unacceptable, instinctual drives into personally and socially acceptable channels

    • ex. intense rage redirected in the form of participation in sports such as boxing or football

• sigmund freud

  • is the father of psychoanalytic theory of development

  • born in 1856, in the austro-hungarian empire

  • his father was a small time merchant

  • his mother was the second wife his father

  • had 2 half brothers 20 years older

  • his family background identified as jewish but he was an avowed atheist

  • as a jewish man,his only career options were medicine and law

  • he chose medicine and specialized in neurology

  • in 1886; he married, moved to vienna austria, opened a practice specializing in nervous and brain disorders

  • in 1900 he introduced the world to freud freudian slips

  • he described it as slips of the tongue where the thoughts of the unconscious mind were revealed

  • the unconscious self

    • it is so large and we are only aware of the conscious

    • this theory can be compared to an iceberg

    • the vast majority is buried beneath the water’s surface

    • the water would represent everything that;

      • we are not aware of

      • have not experiences

      • what has not been integrated into our personalities

      • referred to as the nonconscious

  • psychoanalytic theory

    • stated that the mind is divided into 2 parts

    • the conscious - the part of which we are aware

    • the unconscious - the part of which we are not aware

    • the unconscious mind has more influence than the conscious has on our personality & behavior

    • the unconscious is further divided into 3 parts:

      • the id - encourages us to seek physical satisfaction

      • the superego - prompts us to do the moral thing, not the one that feels the best

      • the ego - referees between the id and the superego, and deals with external reality (our conscious self)

    • freud believed that these 2 parts affect our personality development and individual behavior

    • our early childhood experiences are stored in our unconscious mind

  • psychosexual theory

    • believed that individual sexual satisfaction or frustration was the kew element in personality development

    • also stated that the sex drive was the greatest shaper of personality

    • claimed that sexuality was even present in infants

    • oral stage;

      • duration: from birth to 1 year of age

      • pleasure zone: mouth, lips, tongue

      • main characteristics: main concern is with immediate gratification of urges dominated by the id

      • tasks to achieve: satisfactory feeding & weening

    • anal stage;

      • duration: from 1-2 years of age

      • pleasure zone: below area

      • main characteristics: controlling the bowels and bladder, the ego starts to control the id

      • tasks to achieve: potty and toilet training

    • phallus stage;

      • duration: from 2-6 years of age

      • pleasure zone: below area

      • main characteristics: oedipus and electra complexes, id demands, ego tries to satisfy id, superego tries to impose moral choices

    • latency stage;

      • duration: from 6-11 years of age

      • pleasure zone: none

      • main characteristics: oedipus and electra complexes are resolved

      • Identification with the same sex parent occurs

      • loss of interest in the opposite sex

      • superego continues to compete

      • tasks to achieve: none

    • genital stage

      • duration: from 11 years on

      • pleasure zone: genitals

      • main characteristics: concerned over physical looks and general attraction, considering a love interest/relationship with others

      • tasks to achieve: good relationships with both sexes

    • oedipus complex

      • little boys have a sexual attraction towards their mothers

      • a sense of jealousy and hatred towards their fathers

    • electra complex

      • little girls have a sexual attraction towards their fathers

      • a sense of jealousy and hatred towards their mothers

    • freud says that these complexes are not resolved through murder

    • they’re resolved through gradual identification with the same sex parent

    • they assume the goals, ambitions, mannerisms, and other personality traits

    • fixation;

      • a person can become stuck or fixated at any stage and may not progress beyond it

      • they will continue to find pleasure in the pleasure zone associated with that stage

      • ex. gum chews, pencil biters, smokers are said to be fixated at the oral stage

• carl jung

  • famous psychologist

  • not as famous as sigmund freud

  • early supporter of freud

  • he had similar ideas of the unconscious

  • jung disagreed with;

    • the oedipus complex

    • freud’s emphasis on infantile sexuality

      • libido

      • sexual energy

  • freud and jung ended up splitting up

  • came up with his own theory of psychoanalysis

• differences between jung and freud

• jung also believed that the mind has three parts

  • he has his own theory of the unconscious

  • the ego (conscious aka tip of the iceberg);

    • composed of thoughts, memories, emotions

    • you are aware of these

    • it is responsible for feelings of identity

  • personal unconscious (first layer of the unconscious)

    • forgotten information

    • repressed memories

    • thoughts, feelings, attitudes

    • known as complexes that focus on a single concept

    • one complex can be about an event that happened

    • ex. the birthday party on the weekend

  • collective unconscious (second layer of the unconscious)

    • biggest difference between freud and jung

    • a level of unconscious that is shared with other humans

    • these are memories from our ancestral and evolutionary past

    • ex. fear of dark or snakes or spiders

  • jung believes the collective unconscious contains images and knowledge that are shared with all humans

  • alled these images and pieces of knowledge and they can be seen in religious scriptures, mythologies, folk tales etc.

  • jung called these images archetypes because they have universal meaning across all cultures

  • ex. every culture has a concept of mother, father, good, evil

  • archetypes - images and thoughts which have universal meanings

    • they show up in our dreams, literature, art or religion

    • inborn tendencies which shape human behavior

  • there are four main archetypes

    • persona/mask

      • the persona you show to the world

      • this mask conceals your real self

      • is the public face or a role a person shows others

      • ex. fathers adopt traits that portray them as typical fathers; serious and disciplining

      • not a true reflection of ourselves

      • is an idealized image of how you think you should act/think and behave

      • the persona develops as a social mask to contain all the;

        • primitive urges

        • impulses

        • emotions

        • anything not considered socially acceptable

      • allows people to adapt to the world around them

      • lets people fit in with the society in which they live

    • anima/animus

      • represents our true self

      • not your mask

      • is the mirror image of our biological sex

      • the unconscious female side in males

      • the male side of women

      • amina = males having a female behavior

      • males may repress parts of their personality they think is too feminine like showing empathy

      • animus = women having male behaviors

      • these are idealized impressions of the male and female

    • the shadow

      • the animal side of our personality (like the ID)

      • elements of ourselves that we consider negative

      • we do not show this side to the outside world

      • it can be a source of shame or anxiety

      • the shadow tends to disobey rules

      • we often deny the shadow and project it onto others

      • it can appear in dreams/hallucinations

    • other archetypes

      • the wise old man

        • represents the power of peaceful contemplation

        • is seem as quiet and foresees the future or offers guidance

      • the great mother

        • represents ideal qualities of the mother figure

        • caring, compassionate, dependable and loving

        • may also offer guidance

      • the father - authority figure, stern, powerful

      • the child - longing for innocence, rebirth, salvation

      • the hero - champion, defender, rescuer

      • the maiden - innocence, desire, purity

      • the trickster - deceiver, liar, trouble-maker

  • jung used mandalas in psychotherapy

  • according to freud “a mandala is the psychological expression of totality of the self

  • drawing /coloring mandala helps people know their place within relationships

  • the mandala is a template for the mind and a state peace

  • it is a way to connect with inner self and deal with stress and anxiety

  • when you dream about circles, its a symbol for your search for completeness or self unity

• what are dreams?

  • a succession of images, thoughts, or emotions passing through the mind during sleep

  • dreams can be extraordinarily vivid or very vague

  • filled with joyful emotions or frightening imagery

  • focused an understandable or unclear and confusing

  • there is no consensus out there to explain why we dream

  • some say there is no real reason

  • others say that dreams allow us to sort through our days events, struggles and problems

  • repetitive dreams

    • they carry a message

    • if you have had the same dream since young may indicate a problem that you have been having

    • could also signify a current problem or preoccupation

  • predictive dreams

    • these types of dreams are treated with great caution

    • many people are skeptics of predictive dreams

    • they are hard to prove, it is more of a belief

  • nightmares

    • are a result of some waking anxiety which is so predominant

    • childhood is full of such anxieties

    • after you had a nightmare already, it is rare you will have another the same night

    • nightmares can be recurring which signals you needing to figure out what the waking problem is

  • lucid dreaming

    • defined as dreaming while knowing that you are dreaming

    • usually begins in the middle of the dream

    • the dreamer realizes that the experiences that are occurring are not that of the physical reality but rather the creation of a dream

    • high level lucidity - when the dreamer knows that everything being experienced is a creation of the mind

    • low level lucidity - dreamer not fully aware that they are dreaming, dreamer is allowed to fly but is still scared of threats to their body

    • flying is the most typical type of lucid dream

  • dream symbolism - freud

    • included dream interpretation in psychoanalysis

    • dreams are key to the theoretical understanding of the subconscious

    • we are never able to fully disappear from our environment

    • we can sleep in a dark room with comforters to maintain our comfort level and limit the amount of stimuli in our environment

    • what we dream is not merely coincidental, there is a reason for it

    • freud begins to analyze dreams in order to understand aspects of personality as the relate to pathology

    • dream symbols are more or less sexual

    • our urges and impulses must be released in someway

    • dreams are the perfect outsource for this

    • these are suppressed by the superego when were are awake

    • your guards are down when you sleep

    • you find it difficult to remember your dreams

    • this is cause your super ego tries to protect your conscious mind from disturbing images and desires

    • dreams always have a manifest and latent (hidden) content

    • manifest - what the dream seems to be saying, which is often bizarre

    • latent - what the dream is really trying to say

    • images in our dreams get classified into five categories;

      • displacement - the desire for one thing or person is symbolized by something else

      • projection - the dreamer propels their wants onto another person

      • symbolization - dreamer’s repressed urges or suppressed desires are acted out metaphorically

      • condensation - the dreamer hides their feelings or urges by underplaying it into a brief dream image or event, the meaning may not be obvious

      • rationalization - the dreaming mind organizes a confused dream into one that is more clear and logical

• what is memory?

  • the capacity to acquire and recall knowledge and skills

  • there are different kinds of memory

    • episodic (remembering events from the past)

    • semantic (knowledge of how world/things work)

    • procedural (how to do things)

  • in addition to kinds of memory, there are also 3 levels of memory

    • sensory

    • short term

    • long term

  • each level performs a distinct and necessary function

  • sensory memory

    • receives information from the environment through each of the senses

    • records info from these senses for only a few seconds

    • enables you to hold info long enough to record what is necessary from the environment

    • selects what should be retained from all the sensory info you receive

  • short term memory

    • what is going on in your conscious mind right now

    • holds info for up to 15-20 seconds that is either discarded or stored as long term memory

    • info is stored in several ways

      • sound

      • mental picture

      • associating it with personal meaning

    • in the frontal cortex and parietal lobe

  • long term memory

    • items that are important and having meaning to you are stored here

    • can retain as much info as we want for as long as we want

    • we cannot always recall it at will

    • there are several ways to improve the ability to recall long-term memory

      • ascribing some personal meaning to the memory

      • use efficient methods to retrieve memories

      • recall memories regularly

      • rest or sleep between study sessions as new learning interferes with memory retention

      • easier to recall if organized & related to other info

  • memory and the brain

    • hippocampus: part of a network of regions in the brain important for memory

    • humans have 2 hippocampi on either side of the brain

    • important for converting short term memory to more permanent memory

    • recalling spatial relationships in the world