I/O Psychology Notes

Industrial/ Organizational Psychology

A. Differences Between I/O and Business Programs

1. Industrial/Organizational Psychology

 scientific study of human behavior in organizations and workplace

 applies psychological theories and principles to solve problems related to human behavior in the workplace.

 understanding & improving efficiency, satisfaction, & well-being of employees, while addressing organizational goals.

 topics: recruitment and selection to training, performance management, and organizational development

2. Typical I/O Psychology Course Work and Typical Business Program Course Work

a. I/O Psychology Coursework

 Personnel Psychology, Organizational Behavior, Human Factors, Research Methods, and Psychometrics.

 application of psychological principles to workplace issues

 human element

b. Business Program Coursework

 Marketing, Finance, Management, Accounting, and Economics

 operational and strategic aspects of running a business.

B. Major Fields of I/O Psychology

1. Personnel Psychology

 concerned with employee recruitment, selection, training, performance appraisal, and other personnel functions.

 finding the best candidates for jobs

 developing fair and effective methods for evaluating performance

 creating training performance to enhance skills

2. Organizational Psychology

 examines how organizational structures, cultures, and processes influence employee behavior and well-being.

 improving organizational effectiveness and employee satisfaction

 addressing issues like leadership, motivation, job satisfaction, and work-life balance.

3. Human Factors/ Ergonomics

 study of how people interact with machines, tools, and their work environments.

 aims to design workplaces and tools that improve efficiency, safety, and comfort for employees.

C. Brief History of I/O Psychology

1. Army Alpha and Army Beta - first large-scale applications of psychological testing to evaluate military recruits during World War 1

2. Frank and Lilian Gilbreth

 pioneers in study of time and motion; to increase efficiency in work processes.

 developed methods to reduce the number of motions involved in tasks, which improved productivity and reduced worker fatigue.

3. Hawthorne Studies

 series of experiments conducted at the Western Electric Hawthorne Works in 1920s and 1930s

 how different work conditions affected productivity

Hawthorne Effect - employees' productivity increased when they felt observed and valued.

D. Employment of I/O Psychologists

1. Abroad

 corporate organizations, government agencies, consulting firms, and academia.

 human resource management, organizational development, training and development, and research.

2. In the Philippines - I/O Psych is an emerging field with growing opportunities in corporate settings, particularly in human resources, training, and organizational development.

E. Educational Requirements and Types of Programs

1. Educational Requirements (I/O Psychology)

 master's or doctoral degree in psychology, with a specialization in I/O Psychology.

 coursework includes statistics, research methods, and various applied psychology topics.

2. Types of Programs - vary from general psychology degrees with focus on I/O to specialized I/O Psychology programs.

Research in I/O Psychology

A. Why Conduct Research?

1. Answering Questions and Making Decisions

 helps answer critical questions about employee behavior, job performance, and organizational practices, leading to informed decision making.

 using research to determine the best selection methods for hiring new employees.

2. Research and Everyday Life

 improving interactions, productivity, and satisfaction in various settings.

 research findings on motivation can be used to enhance personal goal-setting strategies.

3. Common Sense is Often Wrong

 it challenges commonly held beliefs and assumptions that may not be accurate, providing evidence-based solutions.

 Ex: Contrary to belief that monetary incentives are always the best motivator, research shows that intrinsic motivation can be more effective in many cases.

B. Considerations in Conducting Research

1. Ideas, Hypothesis, and Theories

 research begins with idea, leading to formulation of hypothesis - a testable prediction

 results of testing hypotheses contribute to development or refinement of theories.

2. Example of Hypothesis Generation/Prediction

a. Idea (ex: remote work affects productivity)

b. Form a hypothesis (remote work increases productivity due to fewer distractions)

c. Design a study to test hypothesis.

Ethics in Industrial/ Organizational Psychology

A. Ethics - involves adhering to ethical principles and guidelines to ensure research and practice are conducted responsibly, respecting the rights and welfare of individuals.

B. Key Ethical Principles

1. Informed Consent - participants must be fully informed about the nature of the study, potential risks, and their right to withdraw at any time.

2. Confidentiality - must ensure that participants' data is kept confidential and used only for the purposes for which it was collected.

3. Avoiding Harm - research and practices should not cause physical or psychological harm to participants or employees.

4. Professional Conduct - adhering to ethical standards in interactions with clients and participants, avoiding conflicts of interest, and maintaining professional competence.

Lesson 2: Job Analysis and Evaluation

A. Importance of Job Analysis

Job Analysis

 systematic process used to identify and define duties, responsibilities, and requirements of a particular job.

 collecting and analyzing data about the tasks, tools, and conditions to create job descriptions and inform various human resource practices.

 critical for several HR functions

 provides foundation for developing job descriptions, selecting employees, designing training programs, and ensuring compliance with legal standards.

1. Writing Job Descriptions - drafting clear and accurate job descriptions by defining roles, responsibilities and requirements of the job

2. Employee Selection - guides the selection process by identifying the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics necessary for job performance

KSAO: Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and other characteristics

3. Training - gaps between current and desired performance levels, helping to design effective training programs.

4. Person power Planning - supports workforce planning by forecasting the number of employees needed and the skills they must possess.

4.1. Peter Principle - employees are promoted based on their performance in their current role rather than skills needed for the new role, leading to incompetence.

5. Performance Appraisal - criteria for evaluating employee performance - outlining the tasks and KSAOs necessary for successful job performance.

6. Job Classification - classify jobs into categories or levels within an organization, which is essential for determining pay scales and career progressions paths.

7. Job Evaluation - data for job evaluation - assesses the relative worth of jobs within an organization to ensure equitable pay.

8. Job Design - designing or redesigning jobs to improve efficiency, employee satisfaction, and productivity.

9. Compliance with Legal Guidelines - ensures employment practices comply with legal standards by providing objective criteria for hiring, promotions, and other HR decisions.

10. Organizational Analysis - aligning jobs with strategic goals of the organization

10.1. Job Analysis Interview - interviews with job incumbents and supervisors are commonly used in job analysis to gather detailed information about job duties and requirements.

B. Writing a Good Job Description

Steps:

1. Job Title - accurately reflect the nature of the job and its level within the organization

2. Brief Summary - "brief" concise description of the job's purpose and primary responsibilities.

3. Work Activities - detailed list of the tasks and responsibilities associated with the job.

4. Tools and Equipment Used - specific tools, software, or equipment the job requires.

5. Job Context - working conditions, physical environment, and context in which the job is performed.

6. Work performance - standards or expectations for job performance

7. Compensation Information - details about salary range and other compensation-related information

7.1. Salary Grade - range for the position, based on job evaluation.

8. Job Competencies - required knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) for the job

8.1. Job Specifications/ Competencies - detailed list of qualifications necessary for the job.

Keywords:

1. Job title

2. Brief Summary

3. Work Activities

4. tools and Equipment used

5. Job Context

6. Work Performance

7. Compensation Information

8. Job Competencies

C. Preparing for A Job Analysis

1. Who will conduct the analysis - HR professionals, job analysts, or external consultants with expertise in job analysis

2. How often should a Job Description be Updated - should be updated regularly - ANNUALLY, or whenever significant changes occur in the job.

2.1. Job Crafting - employees may alter aspects of their job to better fit their strengths, interests, or skills, which should be reflected in updated job descriptions.

3. Which Employees Should Participate? - representative sample of employees who perform the job

a. Job Competence

b. Race

c. Gender

d. Educational level

e. Viewpoint

4. What types of Information should be Obtained? - information on job tasks, KSAOs, work context, tools and equipment, as well as performance standards

D. Steps in conducting a Job Analysis

Step 1: Identify Task Performed

a. Gathering Existing Information -review existing job descriptions, training manuals, and performance appraisals.

b. Interviewing Subject Matter Experts - insights from those who are knowledgeable about the job.

c. Job Analyst - trained job analyst should conduct the interviews and observations

d. SME Conference - meeting of subject matter experts to discuss and validate job tasks

e. Ammerman Technique - method where panel of experts identifies job tasks and responsibilities.

f. Observing Incumbents - directly observe employees performing their jobs to understand tasks.

g. Job Participation - analyst may perform job tasks themselves to gain firsthand experience.

Step 2: Writing Task Statements

a. Task Inventory - comprehensive list of tasks performed in the job.

Step 3: Rate Task Statements

a. Task Analysis - rate tasks based on frequency, importance, and difficulty

b. Critical Incident Technique - focus on specific instances of successful or unsuccessful job performance to identify critical tasks.

Step 4: Determine Essential KSAOs

a. Types of KSAOs - knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics necessary for the job.

b. Competency Modeling - align KSAOs with broader organizational competencies

Step 5: Selecting Tests to Tap KSAOs

a. Creating a Matrix - develop a matrix to match KSAOs with appropriate assessment methods

b. Identify the Best Test - choose the most reliable valid tests for each KSAO.

Keywords: (Steps)

1. Identify Task Performed

2. Writing Task Statements

3. Rate Task Statements

4. Determine Essential KSAOs

5. Selecting tests to tap KSAOs

E. Using Other Job Analysis Methods

1. Methods Providing General Information About Worker Activities - collecting data related to tasks and responsibilities of workers in various job roles.

a. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

 measures job characteristics and relates them to human characteristics

 focuses on 6 major categories: information input, mental processes, work output, relationships with other persons, job context, and other job characteristics.

b. Job Structure Profile (JSP)

 adaptation of PAQ - designed to make the process of job analysis more efficient.

 refines aspects of PAQ to improve its applicability across different job types, particularly in industrial settings.

c. Job Elements Inventory (JEI)

 detailed information about specific job elements - focusing on particular tasks or responsibilities

 to determine the significance of various job elements in relation to overall job performance.

d. Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

 method that evaluates job based on worker's interaction with data, people, and things.

 provides detailed analysis of job functions and importance of these functions to the job.

2. Methods Providing Information About Tools and Equipment - tools and equipment necessary for job performance.

a. Job Components Inventory (JCI)

 collects data about the tools and equipment used in various jobs, as well as physical and perceptual skills required to use them effectively.

 identifying the "necessary job components" that contribute to job performance.

Keywords:

a. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

b. Job Structure Profile (JSP)

c. Job Elements Inventory (JEI)

d. Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

3. Methods Providing Information About the Work Environment - physical, social environment including factors such as working conditions, physical demands, and work setting.

4. Methods Providing Information About Competencies - methods that focus on identifying and evaluating competencies (KSAOs) required to perform a job effectively.

a. Occupational Information Network (O*NET)

 comprehensive database of worker attributes and job characteristics

 provides detailed information on various job occupations, skills, abilities, work activities, and work contexts.

b. Critical Incident Technique (CIT)

 collecting specific, observable examples of behaviors that contribute to success or failure in a job.

 focuses on identifying "critical incidents" that significantly impact job performance.

c. Job Components Inventory (JCI)

 not only provides information about tools and equipment, but also about competencies required to use them

 identifies necessary skills and abilities that contribute to effective job performance.

d. Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA)

 identifying minimum traits or competencies

 helps in establishing baseline qualifications necessary for job candidates.

e. Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS)

 systematic method - focuses on a wide range of physical, cognitive, and sensory abilities that are important for job performance.

f. Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI)

 assesses worker's ability to adapt to changes in job environment - such as new technologies, procedures, or work conditions.

 focus on flexibility and adaptability required for various roles.

g. Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPR)

 to assess personality traits - identifies personality characteristics that are predictive of performance in specific job roles.

Keywords:

a. Occupational Information Network (O*NET)

b. Critical Incident Technique (CIT)

c. Job Components Inventory (JCI)

d. Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA)

e. Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS)

f. Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI)

g. Personality-Related Position Requirements (PPR)

F. Evaluation Methods - approaches used to assess effectiveness of job performance, adequacy of job competencies, or the success of training and development programs.

1. Performance Appraisals - systematic evaluation of employee's job performance, typically against predefined criteria.

2. Competency Assessments - measuring specific competencies required for job performance, such as problem-solving, teamwork, and leadership.

3. 360-Degree Feedback - method where feedback on an employee's performance is gathered from multiple sources, including supervisors, peers, subordinates, and sometimes clients.

4. Benchmarking - comparing competencies and performance levels within an organization against industry standards or competitors.

Job Evaluation

A. Determining Internal Pay Equity

Internal pay equity - being compensated fairly relative to colleagues within the same organization, based on value of jobs.

Step 1: Determining Compensable Job Factors

 criteria used to evaluate jobs, such as skills, effort, responsibility, and working conditions.

Step 2: Determining the levels for Each Compensable Factor

 each is divided into levels that reflect the degree to which that factor is present in a job.

Step 3: Determining the Factor Weights

 each is weighted according to its importance to the organization

B. Determining External Pay Equity - involves ensuring that the pay of a job is competitive with what is offered for similar jobs in the labor market.

1. Salary Surveys - to gather data on compensation levels for similar jobs in other organizations.

2. Direct Compensation - base salary, bonuses, and other financial rewards given to employees.

C. Sex and Race Equity - ensures that compensation practices do not discriminate based on gender or race.

1. Comparable Worth - principle that argues that jobs with similar levels of skill, effort, responsibility, and working conditions should be compensated equally, regardless of who performs them.

Lesson 3: Legal Issues in Employee Selection

Legal Process

 involves several steps to ensure fairness and compliance with laws.

 critical for organizations to understand the legal framework to avoid discrimination and other legal issues.

A. Resolving the Complaint Internally in the Philippine Setting

- companies are encouraged to resolve employment-related complaints internally before they escalate to formal legal action in the Philippines.

Grievance Procedures: Where employees can file complaints about discrimination, unfair treatment, or other workplace issues.

Meditation: Where a neutral third party helps resolve disputes between the employee and employer.

Internal Investigations: To gather facts and evidence regarding the complaint.

Resolution: The goal is to resolve the complaint amicably through dialogue, corrective actions, or compensatory measures if necessary.

B. Filing a Discrimination Charge in the Philippine Setting

 employee may file a formal charge with external agencies if the complaint cannot be resolved internally

Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE): Oversees labor practices and enforces labor laws.

Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Mechanisms: Although not as formalized as in some countries, Philippines has mechanisms in place through DOLE to address discrimination charges.

Legal Proceedings: If mediation or administrative remedies fail, employee may file a case with the National Labor Relations Commissions (NLRC) or the regular courts.

Determining Whether an Employment Decision is Legal

 organizations must ensure that their practices do not violate any laws related to discrimination, harassment, or other protected classes.

A. Protected Class in the Philippines

 are groups shielded by law from discrimination in the workplace

Gender: Protection against gender discrimination, including issues related to pay equity and promotions.

Age: Protection against age discrimination, particularly for older employees.

Religion: Employees are protected from discrimination based on their religious beliefs.

Disability: Laws ensure that persons with disabilities are given equal opportunities in employment.

B. Discriminations in the Philippines

- it can take many forms and is illegal when based on protected characteristics.

Direct Discrimination: Treating an employee less favorably because of their membership in a protected class.

Indirect Discrimination: Implementing policies that appear neutral but disproportionately affect a protected group.

Harassment - involves unwanted conduct related to a protected characteristic that creates a hostile or offensive work environment.

A. Types of Harassment

Verbal Harassment: Insults, jokes, or derogatory comments related to race, gender, or other protected characteristics.

Physical Harassment: Unwanted physical contact or threatening behavior.

Psychological Harassment: Creating a work environment that is intimidating or abusive through non-physical means.

Sexual Harassment - is explicitly prohibited under Philippine law, particularly under the "Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995" (Republic Act No. 7877).

C. Organizational Liability for Sexual harassment - organizations can be held liable for sexual harassment if they fail to prevent or address it adequately.

Vicarious Liability: Employers may be held responsible for the actions of their employees if they knew about the harassment and failed to take appropriate action.

Preventive Measures: Employers must implement measures such as anti-harassment policies, regular training, and effective complaint mechanisms.

Leave in the Philippines - governed by the Labor Code and other relevant laws.

Sick Leave: Employees are entitled to a certain number of paid sick leave days, depending on company policy or collective bargaining agreements.

Maternity Leave: 105 days (paid) maternity leave for female.

Paternity Leave: Male employees are entitled to seven days of paid paternity leave.

Service Incentive Leave: Employees who have worked for at least one year are entitled to five days of service incentive leave, which can be used for personal reasons.

Privacy Issues - involve handling of personal data and the extent to which an employer can monitor employee activities.

A. Data Privacy Act in the Philippines

Republic Act No. 10173: The Data Privacy Act of 2012

 regulates the collection, use, and storage of personal data in the Philippines.

Personal Data Protection: Employers must protect the personal data of their employees and ensure that it is not misused.

Consent: Employees must give their consent for their data to be collected and abused.

Data Subject Rights: Employees have the right to access, correct, and object to processing of their personal data.

B. Drug Testing - is allowed under certain conditions:

Legal Basis: The "Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002" (Republic Act No. 9165) permits drug testing in workplaces as part of a company's policy.

 must be done in a non-discriminatory manner and should be clearly stated in the company's policies.

C. Psychological Tests

Psychological Testing - must comply with ethical standards and legal requirements

Purpose: must be job-related and used for legitimate purposes such as selection or promotion.

Confidentiality: results must be kept confidential and used only for the purpose for which they were intended.