Human Development in Psychology
Chapter 9: Human Development
Chapter Objectives
09.01: Nature-Nurture Issue
The nature-nurture issue explores how genetic and environmental factors contribute to behavior diversity.
09.02: Prenatal Development Stages
Three Stages of Prenatal Development:
Germinal Stage: Cell division begins.
Embryonic Stage: Major organs and systems form and develop.
Fetal Stage: Continued growth and maturation.
Importance of a Positive Prenatal Environment: A positive environment during prenatal development is essential for the health and development of the embryo and fetus.
09.03: Physical Changes Across the Lifespan
Major physical changes occur throughout the life span and are closely related to cognitive development.
09.04: Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories
Comparison of cognitive development theories by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, and application to children’s behavior.
09.05: Theories of Moral Reasoning
Comparison of Lawrence Kohlberg’s and Carol Gilligan’s theories of moral reasoning, and their applications to making moral decisions.
09.06: Temperament in Infants
Definition of temperament and differentiation among three infant temperamental styles:
Easy
Difficult
Slow-to-warm-up
09.07: Attachment Behaviors
Behaviors that indicate attachment formation and distinguishing between different attachment patterns.
09.08: Parenting Styles
Overview of the parenting styles researched by Diana Baumrind and explanation of new roles and responsibilities of being a parent.
09.09: Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory
Detailed examination of Erikson’s theory with potential positive and negative outcomes at each stage of development.
09.10: Gender-Schema Theory
Explanation of gender-schema theory and the influence of nature and nurture on gender-role behavior and identity.
09.11: Formal Operations vs. Post-Formal Thought
Comparison between formal operational thought of Piaget and post-formal thought in later stages of development.
09.12: Adult Mental Abilities
Description of changes in mental abilities occurring during adulthood.
09.13: Emerging Adulthood
Definition of emerging adulthood as a transitional phase of development.
09.14: Social Relations in Adolescence and Adulthood
Description of various social relationships experienced during these life stages.
09.15: Career Development Changes
Explanation of predictable shifts experienced in career development.
09.16: Emotional Reactions to Dying
Application of Kübler-Ross’s research on the emotional reactions characterizing dying individuals.
09.17: Phases of Grief
Overview of the three distinct phases of grief.
Discussion Questions
Do you believe we are born with a personality or does it develop based on our environment?
Does personality remain stable throughout life, or does it change as we learn and grow? Why or why not?
Do you believe in the concepts of “nature” and “nurture”? How do you account for siblings with differing personalities despite being raised in the same environment?
Section 9.1: Human Development
Zygote: A fertilized ovum with 23 pairs of chromosomes; it serves as the genetic blueprint.
Prenatal Stages
Germinal Stage: Initial stage of cell division.
Embryonic Stage: Focuses on organ and system development.
Fetal Stage: Involves growth and maturation; by approximately 24 weeks of gestation, the fetus reaches the age of viability.
Application: The Importance of a Positive Prenatal Environment
Down Syndrome: A condition caused by an extra 21st chromosome.
Teratogens: Environmental agents that can harm the embryo, e.g., alcohol, smoking, drug use.
Sensitive Periods: Specific times during prenatal development when certain organs and systems are more vulnerable to damage from teratogens.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Results from the mother’s chronic alcohol consumption during pregnancy.
Section 9.2: Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood
Brain Development
Neonate: Defined as an infant in the first 28 days of life.
Explosive growth occurs in the infant’s brain during the first year. At birth, the brain has billions of neurons but few connections; myelination is incomplete.
During childhood, reduction of unnecessary neural connections occurs, which diminishes the total number of synapses. Engaging infants with stimulating and age-appropriate activities helps strengthen brain development and retain more connections.
Reflexes and Motor Development
Reflexes: Automatic responses that allow infants to interact with their environment, establishing neural connections for voluntary movements and locomotion.
Gross Motor Skills: Development of large muscle groups (e.g., walking, running).
Fine Motor Skills: Involves smaller muscle groups for tasks like writing or using utensils.
Section 9.3: Cognitive Development in Infancy and Childhood
Perceptual Development
Vision:
Infants are nearsighted at birth, can only focus on close objects.
Convergence: Refers to the ability to focus both eyes on one object.
Infants prefer high-contrast, complex stimuli and tend to focus on faces.
Depth Perception:
Develops in the first year; immature depth perception can result in a higher likelihood of falls.
Hearing
Fetuses react to sounds in utero; newborns can differentiate between familiar and unfamiliar voices.
Infants can locate sound direction and distinguish similar consonant sounds, with memories for simple speech sounds lasting for about a day.
Other Sensory Development
Taste, Touch, and Smell:
Caressing promotes growth and social development, enhancing brain development.
Infants have a highly acute sense of smell, capable of differentiating their mother's scent.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget is recognized as a prominent theorist in cognitive development.
Key Processes:
Assimilation: The application of existing schemas to new information.
Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new experiences.
Stages of Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years): Knowledge acquired through senses; lack of object permanence, which is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.
Preoperational Stage (2 to 6-7 years): Characterized by symbolic thinking; child lacks conservation (the understanding that quantity doesn't change despite shape change) and is egocentric.
Concrete Operations Stage (6 to 11-12 years): Children develop logical thought processes; capable of performing operations mentally rather than merely physically.
Formal Operational Stage (11+ years): Ability to think abstractly and use logical reasoning; involves “what if” scenarios.
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Contrasts with Piaget, emphasizing the importance of culture and social interactions in cognitive processes.
Key Concepts:
Private Speech: Self-talk during play that aids in problem-solving.
Zone of Proximal Development: Refers to the difference between what a child can do without help versus what they can achieve with guidance from an adult.
Scaffolding: The support given during the learning process, which is gradually removed as the child becomes more competent.
Lawrence Kohlberg: Moral Reasoning
Explores the cognitive processes behind moral decision-making.
Stages of Moral Development:
Preconventional Level:
Focuses on obedience to avoid punishment and self-interest.
Conventional Level:
Accepts societal norms regarding right and wrong.
Postconventional Level:
Develops an understanding of morality as based on abstract principles.
Stages of Moral Reasoning Defined
Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment Orientation: Rule adherence is motivated by fear of punishment.
Stage 2 - Naively Egoistic Orientation: Moral actions are defined by personal benefits.
Stage 3 - Interpersonal Accord and Conformity: Good conduct is defined by approval from significant others.
Stage 4 - Authority and Social Order: Rules serve important social functions; compliance is driven by the belief in an orderly society.
Stage 5 - Contractual/Legalistic Orientation: Recognizes that laws can be challenged if they don't protect individual rights.
Stage 6 - Universal Principles Orientation: Guided by self-chosen ethical principles that apply universally across situations.
Gilligan’s Theory: Gender and Moral Reasoning
Proposed that males and females may judge right and wrong differently based on gender perspectives.
Critique of Kohlberg’s model for emphasizing male experiences and cultural norms.
Males prioritized justice, while females emphasized relationships and care in moral judgments.
Section 9.4: Psychosocial Development in Infancy and Childhood
Temperament
Temperament: Refers to the innate characteristics of an infant's style in interacting with their environment.
Three Infant Temperamental Styles:
Easy: Generally in a good mood, regular eating and sleeping habits, sociable.
Difficult: Cries frequently; irregular patterns and cautious behavior around new situations.
Slow-to-warm-up: Mildly negative reactions but eventually adapts to changes.
Attachment
Attachment: Describes the emotional bond between a child and caregiver.
Separation Anxiety: The fear and distress exhibited by infants upon separation from primary caregivers.
Attachment Styles Identified:
Secure Attachment: Child explores independently; parents provide a reliable base for exploration.
Resistant Attachment: Child clings to parents and shows reluctance to explore.
Avoidant Attachment: Child avoids the caregiver and is indifferent to their presence or absence.
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment: Child displays confusion and contradictory behaviors.
Parenting Styles
Identified by Diana Baumrind:
Authoritarian: High demands, low responsiveness; strict rules and expectations.
Authoritative: High demands and responsiveness; encourages independence while maintaining limits.
Permissive: Low control; provides warmth but few boundaries.
Neglectful: Lacks both warmth and control; uninvolved in child’s life.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erikson proposed that development involves navigating crises at different life stages:
Trust vs. Mistrust: Develops trust through reliable care in infancy.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Balancing independence against dependence during toddler years.
Initiative vs. Guilt: Developing initiative and ambition during early childhood.
Industry vs. Inferiority: Mastery and competence develop from childhood experiences and interactions with peers.
Section 9.5: Physical Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood
Brain Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood
Significant growth in the brain, with new neurons and neural connections forming, while unneeded ones are pruned.
The prefrontal cortex matures last, related to decision-making and impulse control.
Changes from Early to Later Adulthood
Peak physical health occurs in early adulthood, with declines in health due to age relating to lifestyle choices.
Not all physical changes are inevitable; positive attitudes towards aging encourage better health outcomes.
Gender and Reproductive Capacity
Females: Fertility declines steadily from age 15 to 50, with menopause around 50.
Males: Experience andropause around 60, with reduced testosterone levels but continued reproductive capacity into advanced ages.
Section 9.6: Cognitive Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood
Formal Operations and Advanced Cognition
Piaget’s formal operational stage emerges in adolescence, allowing for abstract reasoning.
Jeremy Elkind expanded on adolescent cognitive development to include:
Imaginary Audience: The belief that one is constantly being observed by others.
Personal Fable: The notion of being unique and immune to risks involved with risky behaviors.
Postformal Thought
Postformal thought reflects mature reasoning encompassing relativistic thinking as opposed to rigid dualistic thinking.
Changes in Mental Abilities
Fluid Intelligence is linked to processing skills like memory and reaction time but can decline with age.
Crystallized Intelligence relies on accumulated knowledge and experience, often improving with age.
Section 9.7: Psychosocial Changes in Adolescence and Adulthood
Erikson’s Stages of Adolescence and Adulthood
Covers identity formation and relationships:
Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescents consolidate childhood experiences into an identity.
Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young adults commit to long-term relationships.
Generativity vs. Stagnation: Adults seek to contribute meaningfully to society.
Integrity vs. Despair: Reflection on life choices and acceptance of outcomes.
Emerging Adulthood
Defined as transitions from adolescence ending in adult roles, focuses on education and identity exploration. Emerging adulthood is not universally applicable due to socio-economic factors affecting youths' capacity for prolonged education and career exploration.
Variations in Social Relations in Adolescence and Adulthood
Dating and Relationships
Exploring personal relationships is fundamental in adolescence, allowing for cooperation, compromise, and self-discovery.
Cohabitation: Increasing trend in living together before marriage is common in the U.S.
Marriage: Over 90% of Americans marry at some point; marital satisfaction correlates with financial stability.
Divorce Trends
Approximately 1 in 5 adults experience divorce, strongly influenced by education levels, age at marriage, and parental divorce.
Children of divorced parents may show behavioral challenges and fluctuations in academic performance.
Parenting Dynamics
Parenting does not become easier as children grow; responsibilities evolve and present new challenges.
Parenthood is associated with lower marital satisfaction and increased stress levels.
Discussion Questions
Most college students experience emerging adulthood; reflecting on changes in responsibilities and academic preparation can be vital in understanding future adult roles.
Section 9.8: Death and Dying
Emotional Reactions to Death
Kübler-Ross’s Stages of Grief:
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
Stages exist, but their sequence varies per individual.
Bereavement and Grief Response
Bereavement refers to the state of loss; grief is the emotional response.
Grieving can be complex, often involving several phases that vary by cultural context:
Impact Phase: Shock and numbness dominate.
Confrontation Phase: Deep emotional responses emerge.
Accommodation Phase: Adaptive functions start as life resumes.
Section 9.9: Integrating Psychology: The Big Picture
Development needs a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between physical, cognitive, and social dimensions to fully grasp human behavioral variations.
Conclusion: Human development is multifaceted, binding together biological, environmental, and psychological factors influencing growth and change throughout the lifespan.