AP transformation of the west

The Transformation of the West, 1450 - 1750

Contextualization

• The end of the Middle Ages marks the rise of absolute monarchs in Europe.

• The Reformation, exploration, and colonization introduced new challenges for these monarchs.

Political Change

Absolute Monarchy

• Definition: A system where the king or queen holds absolute power.

• Divine Right: The belief that monarchs are God's representatives on Earth.

Spain

• Charles I (Charles V): Grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, became king of Spain and inherited various territories.

  • Ruler over Spain, Spanish colonies, the Netherlands, southern Italy, and parts of the Holy Roman Empire.

  • Acknowledged for stepping down and entering a monastery due to exhaustion in 1556.

• Division of Territories:

  • Charles divided his European territory among his family:

    • Brother Ferdinand received Austria and the Holy Roman Empire.

    • Son Philip II obtained Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, southern Italy, and American colonies.

    • Philip II also took control of Portugal.

Philip II and Religious Wars

• Aimed to strengthen Catholicism in Spain and overseas.

  • Defeated the Moors (Muslims) from the Ottoman Empire.

  • Engaged in conflict with Protestant England, culminating in the defeat of the Spanish Armada.

  • Sir Francis Drake and English "Sea Dogs" played pivotal roles in defeating the Armada.

Arts and Literature in Spain

• Notable figures include:

  • Miguel de Cervantes: Author of Don Quixote.

  • El Greco: Renowned painter.

The Netherlands

• In 1579, Spain lost the Netherlands after numerous battles.

• Independence was declared in 1581, although Spain maintained control over Belgium.

Economic Issues in Spain

• Characterized by stark social divides – a small middle class versus a large lower class.

• Expulsion of Jews and Moors led to a loss of talented artisans contributing to economic decline.

• Nobles were exempt from taxes; the tax burden fell on the lower class, stunting their economic growth.

• Population growth caused food shortages leading to inflation.

• Increased borrowing from German and Italian bankers to fund costly wars.

France

• Religious conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots led to unrest.

  • Notable event: St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, where 3,000 Huguenots were killed on August 24, 1572.

• Henry IV ascended as king, later converted to Catholicism, and issued the Edict of Nantes for religious toleration, assassinated in 1610.

The Rise of Louis XIII

• Succeeded Henry IV; characterized as young and weak.

• Under his reign, Cardinal Richelieu exercised significant control.

  • Aimed to consolidate power, diminishing the influence of the monarchy.

• Restricted the power of French Protestant cities and participated in the Thirty Years War.

Louis XIV - The Sun King

• Louis XIV declared "I am the state" and never called for the Estates-General, reinforcing absolute power.

• Implemented intendants to administer taxes, military recruitment, and enforce policies.

• Jean-Baptiste Colbert promoted mercantilism and economic prosperity through tariffs and trade.

Arts under Louis XIV

• Established French academies setting high standards for arts and sciences, encouraging the development of ballet.

Economic Challenges During Louis XIV’s Reign

• Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 led to the emigration of skilled Huguenots.

• Construction of the extravagant Palace of Versailles, leading to increased dependency of nobles on the king.

• Initiated costly military campaigns, notably the War of Spanish Succession (1700-1713) against a potential unification of France and Spain leading to financial strain.

Germany and the Holy Roman Empire

• The empire was fragmented with competing religious factions: Lutherans formed the Protestant Union; Catholics organized the Catholic League.

Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

• A major religious conflict initiated by Protestant revolt in Bohemia against the Catholic Emperor.

• Involved multiple powers across Europe, ending with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, leading to significant territorial and political consequences.

Effects of the Thirty Years War

• Resulted in the fragmentation of the Holy Roman Empire into 360 individual states.

• Weakened the Hapsburgs while strengthening France with land gains.

• Marked the end of religious wars in Europe and solidified the concept of independent nations negotiating their affairs.

The Rise of Prussia

• Protestant, German-speaking states in northern Europe began to unify under the Hohenzollerns.

• Increased bureaucracy and a strong military presence emerged.

• King Frederick I offered positions to the Junkers, aligning the nobility with governance.

Frederick II (Frederick the Great)

• Expanded Prussia's borders emphasizing military might and governance reforms.

Austria under Hapsburg Rule

• After the death of King Charles VI without a male heir, Maria Theresa became queen.

• Enforced taxes on nobles and clergy, gaining popular support.

War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

• Frederick II invaded Austria post-Maria’s ascension, capturing Silesia.

• Maria Theresa effectively organized a defense to protect her realm.

Russia's Political Landscape

• Boyars, or landowning nobles, held political power; Ivan IV’s rule featured both expansion and severe repression.

• The Romanov Dynasty was initiated in 1613, lasting until 1917 under Michael Romanov.

Peter the Great

• Introduced Westernization efforts aimed at making Russia politically and economically robust.

Catherine the Great

• Married to Peter III, led reforms in governance, education, and military campaigns against the Ottomans.

  • Engaged in partitions impacting Poland's territory, contributing to its dissolution.

England's Political Evolution

• James I exacerbated tensions with Puritans and Parliament, increasing state debt.

• Charles I initiated a Civil War by requesting funds from Parliament, igniting conflicts between Royalists and Parliamentarians (Cavaliers and Roundheads).

  • Oliver Cromwell captured and executed Charles I, becoming a dictator-like ruler until his death in 1658.

Restoration under Charles II

• Charles II’s reign marked the Restoration period, enhancing arts, sciences, and religious toleration.

Glorious Revolution (1688)

• James II’s departure invited William and Mary to the throne, transforming England into a constitutional monarchy.

• The English Bill of Rights established Parliamentary supremacy, influencing governance.

Political Parties and Governance in England

• Emergence of Tories and Whigs reflecting diverging interests in tradition and progressive governance.

Development of Nation-States

• Transition from empires to nation-states characterized by common language and culture.

The Enlightenment in Europe

• The Scientific Revolution led to the Enlightenment emphasizing reason and scientific methodologies applied in various societal domains.

Key Enlightenment Thinkers

• Thomas Hobbes: Advocated for a strong central government.

• John Locke: Emphasized natural rights: life, liberty, property.

Philosophes and Political Challenges

• Advocated for reason, separation of powers (Montesquieu), civil liberties (Voltaire), and educational reforms.

Women in the Enlightenment

• Pioneers like Mary Wollstonecraft argued for women's education and equality.

New Economic Theories

• Laissez-faire: Advocated free-market economics, prominently pushed by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations.

Spread of Enlightenment Ideas

• Engaged in satire and disguised formats to avoid censorship from ruling authorities.

Enlightenment in Arts and Culture

• Developments in arts influenced by salons, new styles (Baroque, Neoclassical), and popular literature.

Impact of Enlightenment on Governance

• Encouraged reforms inspiring significant political revolutions like the American and French revolutions.

• Catalyzed a wave of consumerism and societal change.

Synthesis of Historical Changes

• Highlighted interconnections: Renaissance led to the Reformation, which led to the Scientific Revolution, culminating in the Enlightenment, shifting European norms and governance.