21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook

Title and Publication Information

• Title: 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook

• Author: J. Mitchell Miller

• Publication Date: 2009

• Publisher: SAGE Publications, Inc., Thousand Oaks

• Online ISBN: 9781412971997

• DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412971997

• Access Date: March 16, 2025

Introduction to Criminology

• Definition: Criminology studies crime, derived from Latin "crimin" meaning accusation or guilt, and "-ology" meaning study.

• Multidisciplinarity: Involves contributions from psychology, biology, anthropology, law, sociology, geography, social work, and public health.

• Focus Areas:

  • Crime causation theories

  • Social control mechanisms (police, courts, corrections)

  • Specific offenses, including:

    • Crimes against property (burglary, theft, robbery, shoplifting)

    • Crimes against persons (homicide, assault, rape)

    • Morality/social order crimes (gambling, prostitution, substance offenses)

    • Technology crime/cybercrime

Historical Evolution of Criminology

• Academic Evolution: Criminology has matured from philosophy to social science, now recognized as an independent discipline.

• Social Contract Concept:

  • Introduced by Thomas Hobbes, emphasizing personal freedom sacrifice for societal protection.

  • Historical practices like trial by battle and ordeal showed early justice systems’ failures to accurately address guilt or innocence.

• Enlightenment Influence:

  • Shift towards logic over superstition, influencing the development of criminological theories.

• Classical School of Criminology: Emphasizes rational choice and deterrence, contrasting earlier superstitious views.

Theoretical Framework in Criminology

• Theoretical Criminology: Dominates the discipline by explaining crime causes, with significant theories providing empirical support but criticized for practical utility.

• Key Definitions:

  • Criminology (Sutherland, 1939): Body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon that includes law-making processes, law-breaking, and reactions thereto.

• Research Methodologies: Importance of theory-methods symmetry; theories must be scientifically validated using empirical research methods.

Understanding Crime Dynamics

• Variables in Criminology:

  • Independent Variables: Factors that influence crime rates or criminal behavior.

  • Dependent Variables: Primary focus in criminology, primarily crime rates or criminality which reflects societal behaviors.

  • Correlation: Indicates relationships between variables, inferencing how they may affect each other.

  • Operationalization: Defines how variables are measured, directly affecting research outcomes and implications.

• Measurement Errors: Highlight how different contexts (law enforcement vs. correctional settings) can lead to varying definitions of recidivism, impacting interpretations of data.

Future Directions in Criminology

• Integration of Theory and Practice: Highlighting the necessity of linking theoretical insights to practical applications in criminal justice.

• Multidisciplinary Approach: Recognition of complex social issues leading to crime supports the need for varied disciplinary perspectives.

• Continued Role of Theory: Despite pure theoretical pursuits, the focus on developing applicable evidence-based policies remains crucial as criminology evolves.

• Public Policy Relevance: Increasing emphasis on multidisciplinarity enhances criminology's relevance in informing real-world criminal justice practices.

Conclusion

• Overall Importance: Criminology's aim is to better understand crime through rigorous research and theory, directly impacting the effectiveness of criminal justice and social policies.