Untitled Flashcards Set

Transcontinental Railroads (6.2)

A network of railroads that connected the eastern United States with the western states, allowing for the faster transportation of goods and people. The completion of the first transcontinental railroad in 1869 symbolized the nation's expansion westward.

Great American Desert (6.2)

A term used in the 19th century to describe the arid, western region of the United States, particularly the Great Plains. Early settlers thought it was unsuitable for farming due to its dry conditions.

Barbed Wire (6.2)

A type of fencing material with sharp edges or points, invented in the 1870s, used to enclose cattle and farmland, transforming the western frontier and aiding in the settlement of the Great Plains.

Homestead Act (6.2)

Passed in 1862, this law granted 160 acres of public land to any adult citizen or intended citizen who paid a small fee and agreed to improve the land by building a dwelling and farming it for at least five years.

National Grange Movement (6.2)

An organization founded in 1867 that aimed to promote the social and economic needs of farmers, advocating for cooperatives, educational programs, and political reforms.

Granger Laws (6.2)

A series of laws passed in the late 19th century to regulate railroad rates and practices, championed by the Grange Movement. These laws were designed to protect farmers from exploitation by railroads.

Munn v. Illinois (6.2)

An 1877 Supreme Court case in which the Court upheld the right of states to regulate businesses that affect public interest, particularly railroads and grain elevators.

Frederick Jackson Turner (6.3)

A historian known for his "Frontier Thesis," which argued that the American frontier was crucial in shaping the nation's democratic institutions and character.

“The Significance of the Frontier in American History” (1893) (6.3)

An influential essay by Frederick Jackson Turner in which he argued that the frontier played a key role in the development of American democracy, individuality, and expansionist ideology.

Little Big Horn (6.3)

A 1876 battle in Montana between the U.S. Army, led by General George Custer, and Native American forces. The Native Americans, led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, defeated Custer's forces in one of the most famous clashes in Native American history.

Ghost Dance Movement (6.3)

A religious movement among Native American tribes in the late 19th century, which promised the return of ancestors, the restoration of Native lands, and the disappearance of the white settlers. The movement was suppressed after the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890.

Helen Hunt Jackson (6.3)

An author and activist who advocated for Native American rights. Her book A Century of Dishonor (1881) highlighted the injustices faced by Native Americans and called for government reform.

Dawes Act of 1887 (6.3)

A law aimed at assimilating Native Americans by dividing tribal lands into individual parcels for Native American families, with the hope of encouraging farming and private property ownership.

Indian Reorganization Act (6.3)

A 1934 law aimed at reversing the Dawes Act by promoting Native American self-government and the restoration of tribal lands.

Santa Fe Trail (6.3)

A historic trade route that connected Missouri to Santa Fe, New Mexico, used during the 19th century for the transportation of goods and settlers.

Forest Reserve Act of 1891 (6.3)

A law that allowed the president to set aside forested lands as protected national forests.

Forest Management Act of 1897 (6.3)

A law that established guidelines for the management of the national forests, promoting conservation and sustainable use of forest resources.

John Muir (6.3)

A naturalist and environmentalist who founded the Sierra Club in 1892 and played a key role in the early conservation movement in the United States.

Sierra Club (6.3)

An environmental organization founded by John Muir in 1892, dedicated to promoting conservation and the protection of the natural environment.

“New South” (6.4)

A term used to describe the South's attempt to modernize its economy after the Civil War, focusing on industrialization, diversification, and moving away from the traditional reliance on agriculture, especially cotton.

George Washington Carver (6.4)

An African American agricultural scientist and inventor best known for his work with peanuts and other crops. He promoted crop rotation and sustainable farming practices, which helped improve the lives of Southern farmers.

Tuskegee Institute (6.4)

A historically Black university in Alabama, founded by Booker T. Washington in 1881. It became a center for vocational and industrial education for African Americans.

White Supremacists (6.4)

Individuals or groups that believe in the racial superiority of white people over other racial groups, often supporting discriminatory policies and actions to maintain social, economic, and political dominance.

Civil Rights Cases of 1883 (6.4)

A group of five Supreme Court cases in which the Court ruled that the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which prohibited racial discrimination in public accommodations, was unconstitutional. This ruling allowed segregation to continue.

Plessy v. Ferguson (6.4)

An 1896 Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the doctrine of “separate but equal,” allowing segregation in public facilities to continue for decades.

Jim Crow Laws (6.4)

State and local laws enacted in the South that mandated racial segregation in all public facilities, schools, and transportation, under the guise of providing “separate but equal” accommodations.

Literacy Tests (6.4)

Tests that were used as a requirement for voting in the South, often designed to disenfranchise African American voters by making the tests unnecessarily difficult and discriminatory.

Poll Taxes (6.4)

Taxes required to be paid before voting, used in the South as a means to prevent African Americans from voting, as many were too poor to afford the tax.

Grandfather Clauses (6.4)

Laws that allowed white voters to bypass literacy tests and poll taxes if their grandfathers had been eligible to vote. These clauses effectively excluded African Americans from voting while protecting white voters.

Ida B. Wells (6.4)

An African American journalist, activist, and early leader in the civil rights movement who fought against lynching and promoted anti-lynching legislation.

International Migration Society (6.4)

An organization aimed at helping African Americans migrate to Africa, specifically Liberia, in order to escape racial discrimination in the U.S. and create a new society for Black people.

Booker T. Washington (6.4)

An influential African American leader and educator who promoted vocational training and economic self-sufficiency as a means for African Americans to improve their social status.

W. E. B. Du Bois (6.4)

An African American scholar, activist, and co-founder of the NAACP, who advocated for political and social equality for African Americans and opposed Booker T. Washington’s emphasis on vocational training, arguing for higher education and civil rights.

Atlanta Compromise (6.4)

An agreement forged in 1895 in which Booker T. Washington advocated for Black Americans to accept segregation and disenfranchisement in exchange for vocational training and economic opportunities.

Transatlantic Cable (6.5)

A cable that ran across the Atlantic Ocean to transmit telegraphic messages between North America and Europe. Its completion in 1866 revolutionized global communication.

Alexander Graham Bell (6.5)

An inventor best known for inventing the telephone in 1876, which transformed communication and contributed to the growth of new industries.

Henry Bessemer (6.5)

An English inventor who developed the Bessemer process, a method for producing steel more efficiently and cheaply. This process revolutionized the steel industry and contributed to industrialization in the U.S.

Thomas Edison (6.5)

An American inventor credited with developing the electric light bulb, phonograph, and numerous other inventions that significantly impacted American society and industry.

George Westinghouse (6.5)

An American inventor and entrepreneur who developed the alternating current (AC) system for electrical power distribution, competing with Edison’s direct current (DC) system.

American Railroad Association (6.6)

A trade organization that represented railroad companies and helped set standards for railway operations, safety, and equipment in the late 19th century.

Cornelius Vanderbilt (6.6)

A wealthy American businessman who dominated the railroad and shipping industries in the 19th century. He consolidated several major railroads and was a key figure in the development of the modern American railroad network.

Jay Gould (6.6)

A notorious 19th-century American railroad magnate and investor, known for his manipulation of stock markets and attempts to monopolize the railroad industry.

J. Pierpont Morgan (6.6)

A powerful American banker and financier who helped finance the railroad industry and consolidated several large corporations, including U.S. Steel, into trusts.

Andrew Carnegie (6.6)

A Scottish-American industrialist who led the expansion of the steel industry in the late 19th century. He was a major philanthropist, donating much of his fortune to causes like education and public libraries.

United States Steel (6.6)

A steel company formed in 1901 by J.P. Morgan through the merger of several steel companies, including Carnegie Steel. It became the largest steel producer in the world.

John D. Rockefeller (6.6)

An American oil industry magnate who founded Standard Oil, a monopoly that dominated the U.S. oil industry during the late 19th century and was eventually broken up by antitrust laws.

Monopoly (6.6)

A market structure where a single company or entity has exclusive control over a product or service, eliminating competition. This can lead to higher prices and reduced quality for consumers.

Standard Oil (6.6)

A company founded by John D. Rockefeller that controlled most of the oil industry in the United States during the late 19th century. It became a monopoly and was eventually broken up by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1911 due to antitrust laws.

Trust (6.6)

A legal arrangement where a group of companies are controlled by a single board of trustees, essentially creating a monopoly. Trusts were commonly used in the late 19th century to consolidate power in various industries.

Horizontal Integration (6.6)

A business strategy in which a company acquires or merges with other companies that produce the same product or service. This allows a company to dominate the market and reduce competition.

Vertical Integration (6.6)

A business strategy where a company controls all aspects of the production process, from raw materials to final product distribution. This allows for cost reductions and greater control over the supply chain.

Holding Company (6.6)

A company that owns controlling shares of other companies but does not directly engage in producing goods or services. Holding companies often create monopolies by controlling multiple businesses in the same industry.

Laissez-faire (6.6)

An economic philosophy that advocates minimal government interference in business affairs, arguing that free markets and competition should dictate the economy.

Social Darwinism (6.6)

A theory that applied Charles Darwin’s ideas of natural selection and survival of the fittest to human society, suggesting that wealth and success were determined by natural abilities and that society should not interfere with this "natural" order.

Survival of the Fittest (6.6)

A phrase coined by Herbert Spencer, often associated with Social Darwinism, suggesting that in nature and society, the strongest and most capable individuals or businesses survive and thrive, while the weak fail.

Protestant Work Ethic (6.6)

A concept that originated in the Reformation, which emphasized hard work, thrift, and efficiency as moral virtues. It was later associated with the rise of capitalism in the United States.

Concentration of Wealth (6.6)

The accumulation of wealth by a small group of individuals or corporations, often resulting in economic inequality. In the late 19th century, the concentration of wealth led to debates about social justice and the role of government in regulating the economy.

Collective Bargaining (6.7)

The process by which workers, often represented by unions, negotiate with employers to secure better wages, working conditions, and benefits. It is a key tool for labor rights.

Railroad Strike of 1877 (6.7)

A nationwide strike that began with railroad workers protesting wage cuts and poor working conditions. It escalated into violent clashes between workers and the military, marking one of the largest labor uprisings of the 19th century.

National Labor Union (6.7)

Founded in 1866, the National Labor Union was the first national organization of labor unions in the U.S. It sought to improve working conditions, wages, and labor rights, and it was instrumental in pushing for an 8-hour workday.

Knights of Labor (6.7)

A labor organization founded in 1869 that advocated for broad social reforms, including the 8-hour workday, equal pay for women, and the abolition of child labor. It was the largest labor organization in the U.S. in the 1880s.

Haymarket Bombing (6.7)

An incident in 1886 during a labor rally in Chicago, where a bomb exploded, killing several police officers and civilians. It led to the public associating labor movements with violence and radicalism.

American Federation of Labor (AFL) (6.7)

Founded in 1886, the AFL was a national federation of trade unions that focused on improving wages, hours, and working conditions for skilled workers. It was led by Samuel Gompers.

Samuel Gompers (6.7)

The founder and longtime president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), who advocated for practical economic goals such as higher wages, shorter hours, and improved working conditions for skilled workers.

Homestead Strike (6.7)

A violent labor dispute in 1892 at the Homestead Steel Works in Pennsylvania between steel workers and the Carnegie Steel Company, which resulted in the deaths of several workers and a temporary defeat for the labor movement.

Pullman Strike (6.7)

A nationwide railroad strike in 1894 that began at the Pullman Company in Chicago, where workers protested wage cuts and high rents in company-owned housing. The strike escalated into a nationwide conflict and was eventually broken up by federal troops.

Eugene v. Debs (6.7)

A prominent labor leader and the founder of the American Railway Union, Debs was jailed for his role in the Pullman Strike. He later became a key figure in the socialist movement in the U.S.

“Old” Immigrants (6.8)

Term used to describe immigrants to the U.S. before the 1880s, primarily from Northern and Western Europe, including Germany, Ireland, and England. They were often seen as more "assimilable" than later waves of immigrants.

“New” Immigrants (6.8)

Term used to describe immigrants arriving in the U.S. after the 1880s, primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe, including Italy, Poland, and Russia. They were often viewed with suspicion due to cultural differences.

Chinese Exclusion Act (6.8)

A law passed in 1882 that prohibited Chinese immigration to the United States and was the first federal law to restrict immigration based on race or nationality.

Tenement Apartments (6.8)

Overcrowded and often unsanitary apartment buildings in urban areas, where many immigrants and working-class families lived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries due to a lack of affordable housing.

Ellis Island (6.9)

An island in New York Harbor that served as the primary immigration station for millions of immigrants arriving in the United States from 1892 to 1954. Immigrants were processed and screened for diseases and legal issues before entering the country.

Political Machines (6.9)

Corrupt political organizations that controlled city governments in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They were often led by "bosses" who used patronage, bribery, and voter manipulation to maintain power and control over local politics.

Tammany Hall (6.9)

The most infamous political machine in New York City, known for its corruption and control over city politics from the 19th century into the early 20th century. It was led by figures such as Boss Tweed.

Jane Addams (6.9)

A social reformer and founder of the Hull House in Chicago, which provided social services, education, and assistance to immigrants and poor communities. She was a leader in the settlement house movement and an advocate for women's rights and peace.

Settlement Houses (6.9)

Community centers that provided social services, education, and healthcare to immigrants and the poor, especially in urban areas. They were a key part of the social reform movements in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Melting Pot (6.9)

A metaphor for the assimilation of immigrants into American society, where diverse cultural backgrounds blend together to form a new, unified national identity. However, it has been criticized for downplaying ethnic diversity and the challenges of assimilation.

Cultural Diversity (6.9)

The presence of multiple cultural groups within a society. In the U.S., this term often refers to the variety of ethnicities, religions, and traditions brought by immigrants, contributing to the nation's social fabric.

White-Collar Workers (6.10)

Employees who perform professional, managerial, or administrative work, as opposed to blue-collar workers, who are involved in manual labor. White-collar jobs became more common during the rise of industrialization.

“Gospel of Wealth” (6.10)

A concept popularized by Andrew Carnegie, which argued that wealthy individuals had an obligation to use their wealth to benefit society. This idea led to significant philanthropic efforts by industrialists during the late 19th century.

W. E. B. Du Bois (6.10)

A prominent African American scholar, civil rights activist, and co-founder of the NAACP. Du Bois was a leading advocate for racial equality, higher education for African Americans, and political activism. His ideas often contrasted with those of Booker T. Washington.

Clarence Darrow (6.10)

A prominent American lawyer and civil libertarian known for his defense of unpopular causes. He is most famous for defending John Scopes in the Scopes "Monkey" Trial in 1925, where he challenged the teaching of evolution in schools.

Joseph Pulitzer (6.10)

A Hungarian-American newspaper publisher who helped establish the modern newspaper industry. He was known for his crusading journalism and is the namesake of the Pulitzer Prizes, which honor outstanding achievements in journalism and the arts.

William Randolph Hearst (6.10)

A powerful newspaper magnate who built one of the largest newspaper empires in the U.S. Hearst was known for sensationalist "yellow journalism" and played a significant role in shaping public opinion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Salvation Army (6.11)

A Christian charitable organization founded in 1865 in London, which later expanded to the U.S. The Salvation Army provides social services, including food, shelter, and disaster relief, to those in need.

Social Gospel (6.11)

A religious movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that sought to apply Christian ethics to social problems, including poverty, inequality, and labor exploitation. It inspired many social reforms and humanitarian efforts.

Jane Addams (6.11)

(Already defined earlier in section 6.9.)

Susan B. Anthony (6.11)

A key leader in the women's suffrage movement who played a critical role in advocating for women’s right to vote in the United States. She co-founded the National Woman Suffrage Association and was pivotal in securing the passage of the 19th Amendment.

NAWSA (6.11)

The National American Woman Suffrage Association, founded in 1890, was a major organization that campaigned for women’s right to vote. It was a combination of two earlier suffrage groups, and it played a crucial role in the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920.

WCTU (6.11)

The Women's Christian Temperance Union, founded in 1874, was a group that advocated for the prohibition of alcohol. It was also involved in social reforms such as women’s suffrage, labor rights, and child welfare.

Anti-Saloon League (6.11)

An influential organization that led the campaign for prohibition in the United States. It was founded in 1893 and focused on lobbying for laws to ban alcohol consumption, leading to the passage of the 18th Amendment (Prohibition) in 1919.

Mark Twain (6.11)

The pen name of Samuel Clemens, an American writer and humorist best known for works such as The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. Twain’s writing often addressed social issues and exposed the flaws of American society.

Frank Lloyd Wright (6.11)

An American architect who revolutionized architecture with his designs, emphasizing organic architecture that harmonized with the natural environment. His most famous work is the design of the Fallingwater house.

Landscape Architecture (6.11)

The design of outdoor spaces, parks, and gardens with a focus on the aesthetics, functionality, and sustainability of the environment. Frank Lloyd Wright is often associated with innovations in this field as well.

Federal Land Grants (6.12)

Land grants provided by the U.S. government to railroads, schools, and other institutions to promote development. The Homestead Act is one example of such a policy that provided land to settlers.

Credit Mobilier (6.12)

A scandal in the 1870s involving the Union Pacific Railroad, where a construction company (Credit Mobilier) overcharged the government for building the railroad and bribed politicians to avoid investigation.

Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 (6.12)

A federal law that regulated the railroad industry, ensuring that railroad rates were "reasonable and just." The Act also established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to oversee the regulation of railroads.

Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 (6.12)

A landmark U.S. antitrust law that aimed to prevent monopolies and business practices that restrained competition. It was the first federal law to outlaw trusts and monopolistic practices.

United States v. E. C. Knight Co. (6.12)

An 1895 Supreme Court case that limited the effectiveness of the Sherman Antitrust Act by ruling that manufacturing, which was regulated in this case, was not subject to federal regulation under the law.

Pendleton Act of 1881 (6.12)

A law that established a merit-based system for federal government jobs, reducing political patronage and corruption. It created the Civil Service Commission to oversee the hiring of government employees.

Civil Service Commission (6.12)

A government agency created by the Pendleton Act of 1881 to oversee the hiring and promotion of federal employees based on merit rather than political connections.

Panic of 1873 (6.12)

A financial crisis triggered by the collapse of several banks and businesses, leading to a severe economic depression in the U.S. that lasted for several years.

Bland-Allison Act (6.12)

A law passed in 1878 that required the U.S. Treasury to purchase silver and coin it into silver dollars, though at a limited amount. The act was a compromise that aimed to appease both advocates of the silver standard and those who favored a gold-backed currency.

African Americans (6.13)

A racial group in the U.S. with a history rooted in slavery, African Americans played a central role in the post-Civil War social and political changes, fighting for civil rights, equality, and justice in the face of systemic racism and segregation.

Temperance (6.13)

A social movement advocating for the reduction or elimination of alcohol consumption. Temperance advocates argued that alcohol led to moral decay, violence, and social problems. This movement ultimately contributed to Prohibition in the 1920s.

“Solid South” (6.13)

A term used to describe the political dominance of the Democratic Party in the Southern U.S. after the Civil War, from the late 19th century into the mid-20th century. This dominance was marked by the disenfranchisement of African Americans and the entrenchment of segregationist policies.

Farmers’ Alliance (6.13)

A movement in the late 19th century that aimed to address the economic struggles of farmers by advocating for lower railroad rates, the free coinage of silver, and reforms to the banking system. It led to the formation of the Populist Party.

Omaha Platform (6.13)

The 1892 platform of the Populist Party, which called for a wide range of reforms, including the free coinage of silver, government ownership of railroads and telegraph systems, a progressive income tax, and direct election of U.S. Senators.

Grover Cleveland (6.13)

The 22nd and 24th President of the United States. A conservative Democrat who fought against high tariffs, the gold standard, and monopolies. Cleveland's presidency saw the Panic of 1893, a major economic depression.

Panic of 1893 (6.13)

A major economic depression triggered by the collapse of several railroad companies and banks, leading to widespread unemployment, business failures, and a significant downturn in the U.S. economy that lasted for several years.

William Jennings Bryan (6.13)

A political leader, lawyer, and three-time presidential candidate who championed the interests of farmers and the working class. Known for his "Cross of Gold" speech advocating for the free coinage of silver, Bryan became a leader of the Populist movement and the Democratic Party's progressive wing.

“Cross of Gold” Speech (6.13)

A famous speech delivered by William Jennings Bryan at the 1896 Democratic National Convention, in which he argued that the U.S. should adopt a bimetallic standard (using both gold and silver) to raise inflation and benefit farmers and working-class Americans.

William McKinley (6.13)

The 25th President of the United States, serving from 1897 to 1901. McKinley led the nation during the Spanish-American War and was a strong proponent of the gold standard. His presidency marked the end of the Populist movement's influence on national politics.

Gold Standard (6.13)

The monetary system in which the value of currency is directly tied to a specific amount of gold. Advocates argued it ensured stability and trust in the currency, while critics (like the Populists) believed it favored wealthy elites and caused deflation, which hurt farmers.