Chapter 1: French Revolution (AICE EURO HISTORY)
The Ancien Régime
France in the late 18th century was ruled by Louis XVI, an absolute monarch.
France was difficult to govern due to regional differences, different legal systems, and customs barriers.
Peasants made up 80% of the population and faced heavy taxation, inefficient agriculture, and poverty.
Urban population faced unemployment, declining wages, and high food prices, leading to unrest and bread riots.
Middle class, educated and frustrated by lack of political power, played a crucial role in the revolution.
The Church and the Aristocracy
The Roman Catholic Church was wealthy, controlled education, and resisted reforms.
The aristocracy, a tiny minority, owned most of the land and wealth, paid few taxes, and enjoyed privileges.
French aristocracy was hostile to trade and commerce, unlike the British aristocracy.
Division within the clergy and aristocracy weakened their ability to resist revolutionary forces.
King Louis XVI and the Parlements
Louis XVI inherited absolute power but faced challenges from courtiers and ministers on the role of the monarch.
Some wanted to increase the king's power, while others sought to limit it by consulting the aristocracy.
Enlightenment ideas influenced a few to reform the system for efficiency and inclusivity.
Parlements, courts with noble lawyers, could delay or prevent royal orders, leading to conflicts with intendants appointed by the king.
In summary, the 1789 revolution in France was fueled by social divisions, economic hardships, discontent with the monarchy, resistance from the Church and aristocracy, and conflicting views on the role of the king in governance. The revolution was a response to the oppressive Ancien Régime and marked a significant shift in power dynamics within French society.
Page 11:
Divisions within the aristocracy and clergy reflected in local administration
Bitter local rivalries made France difficult to govern
Louis XVI was religious but weak and indecisive
Resistance to reform led to his execution in 1793
Enlightenment in 18th-century France
Influential thinkers like Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, Rousseau, and Quesnay
Criticized existing systems and advocated for improvements
Influence on revolutionary leaders and Napoleon Bonaparte
Importance of Enlightenment ideas
Provided a basis for the revolutionary process in France
Encouraged debate and argument on public issues
Helped shape the new governance after the collapse of the Ancien Régime
Page 12:
Impact of Enlightenment ideas on French society
Challenged established ideas and social structures
Advocated for equality before the law and independent thinking
Contributed to the start of the revolution in 1789
Political and economic factors in the revolution
Alliance with American colonists against Britain in 1778
Turgot's warnings against involvement in wars ignored
Necker's appointment as finance minister due to France's dire financial state
Page 13:
Jacques Necker (1732–1804)
Finance minister three times, caused and attempted to solve France's economic problems
Advised Louis XVI to call the Estates General in 1789
Faced challenges in accurately assessing royal finances and implementing reforms
Charles de Calonne's reforms in 1786
Submitted proposals to address France's economic problems
Recognized the need for financial reform to prevent bankruptcy
France's economic problems before the revolution
High state debts and borrowing at high interest rates
Costly war with Britain leading to deeper national debt
Growing concern about the state of royal finances and the need for stability
Page 14
Taxation Reform
Increase taxes for the wealthy to stimulate the economy and encourage commerce and industry.
Gain confidence in France's economy to borrow money at lower interest rates.
Assembly of Notables
Made up of nobles and clergy, with limited support for proposed reforms.
Lack of clarity on the role and authority of the Assembly.
Financial and Political Crisis
Calonne's dismissal led to public concern and protests.
Opposition to increased taxes and demands for accurate royal financial accounts.
Paris Parlement
Refused to support tax increases without accurate royal accounts.
King's refusal led to protests and banishment of parlement members.
Page 15
Growing Unrest
Anger at the king's refusal to intervene in the Netherlands.
Army viewed as unreliable due to lack of funds and incompetent officer corps.
Demand for social, economic, and political change through pamphlets and protests.
Economic Challenges
Hailstorms destroying harvest led to food shortage and higher prices.
Appointment of Necker as finance minister to address financial crisis.
Estates General
Summoned for the first time since 1614 to address France's problems.
Cahiers de doléances presented demands from the clergy, nobility, and the Third Estate.
Page 16
Cahiers de doléances
Demands from the clergy, nobility, and the Third Estate for reforms and rights.
Estates General Meeting
Held in May 1789 at Versailles amidst social, economic, and political unrest.
Expectations from the monarch, court, and the French people for significant outcomes.
Conflicting Aims
Challenges arose as the three Estates had conflicting goals.
Equal voting rights for all Estates in decision-making process.
Page 17
Estates General Opening Assembly
Engraved by Isidore Stanislas Helman after a drawing by Charles Monnet
King's main concern: financial problems
Educated middle class wanted extensive government overhaul
Third Estate demanded reforms, faced resistance from First and Second Estates
Third Estate changed name to 'National Assembly' on June 17, 1789
'Tennis Court Oath' taken by the National Assembly to establish a new constitution
Page 18
Tensions in France
Hunger due to poor harvest led to tense situation
King's unhelpful decisions fueled tensions
Dismissal of Necker seen as a setback for reforms
Responsibility for Crisis of 1789
Factors: King, Ancien Régime, Necker, Church, Aristocracy, French economy
Discussion on factors responsible for the crisis
Page 19
Responses to Louis XVI’s actions
Storming of the Bastille
Symbol of royal tyranny attacked on July 14, 1789
Bastille destroyed, governor killed
Parisian mob demonstrated anger and determination for change
French Revolution
'Great Fear' in summer of 1789
Mass refusal to pay taxes, looting of noblemen's homes
Third Estate representatives at Versailles took initiative
Page 20
August Decrees
Abolished privileges of nobles, duties owed by peasants to landlords, parlements, provincial estates, and reduced the status of the Roman Catholic Church in France.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Passed in August 1789 by the National Assembly.
Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers.
Established principles for the new government system.
Recognized rights like liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.
Page 21
Decree on Government Differences
Outlined principles like liberty, law, equality, innocence until proven guilty, freedom of speech, and public contribution.
Stressed the importance of law and public accountability.
Revolutionary Change
Differences between Ancien Régime and new decrees were revolutionary.
Supported by evidence like protection of rights, equality before the law, and public accountability.
Page 22
Fundamental Principles of Government
Established that power came from the nation, the National Assembly had legislative power, and the king was under the law.
Women's March on Versailles
Women marched to Versailles demanding changes.
King and royal family were escorted to Paris by the crowd.
Influence of Parisian Crowd
Radical Parisian crowd influenced revolutionary change.
National Assembly's move to Paris was significant.
Reflection
Defining Revolution
Methods of defining revolution varied.
Discussion on defining revolution may lead to changes in methods.
Influence of Events
Events like the Women's March on Versailles and public pressure led to revolutionary changes.
Significance of National Assembly
National Assembly's decisions and moves were crucial in the revolutionary period.
Page 23
Historians have different views on the reasons for the French Revolution in 1789
Liberals in the early 19th century believed it was a natural progression towards representative government
Conservatives viewed it as crimes by lower and middle classes leading to the Terror
Later historians suggested famine, political and ideological motivations, desire for equality and democracy
Page 24
French governments were unstable from 1790 to 1795 due to various factors
Lack of agreement on governance and deep antagonism between Paris and regions
Social and economic issues, worsened by war with Austria in 1792
Rapid radical changes, including abolition of monarchy and aristocracy
Creation of a new calendar during the revolutionary period
Started on 22 September 1792 after acceptance of the republican constitution
Napoleon later reverted to the old calendar in 1805
Issues remaining after the destruction of the old system
Getting the king to accept changes and ensuring the Assembly's capability
Need for a new type of government with shared power and fair systems
Page 25
Reliability of an image depicting the events in France during 1789
Shows the Third Estate breaking free from chains, causing fear in the aristocracy and clergy
Challenges faced by the Assembly in 1790
Lack of clear leadership and understanding of people's desires
Inexperience in lawmaking and opposition from nobility and clergy
Revolutionary groups in the Assembly
Formation of clubs representing conservatives, moderate reformers, and radical reformers
Jacobins as the most radical group advocating for the execution of the king and end of aristocracy
Feuillants and Girondins as other significant political clubs with differing ideologies
Failures of counter-revolutionary groups
Attempts to restore the Bourbon monarchy were unsuccessful due to lack of realism
Page 26
Louis XVI and his courtiers failed to understand the depth of anti-government sentiment in France before 1789.
The king could not accept limits to his powers and the need to rule with the people's consent.
The royalists, including Louis XVIII, lacked unity and effective leadership.
Different factions had conflicting aims on restoring the monarchy or establishing a constitutional monarchy.
Internal divisions weakened the royalists, and they underestimated the loyalty of many to the revolution.
France's opposition to the revolution was divided with varying aims.
Some prioritized restoring the Church over the king.
Regions like Brittany were willing to fight but not to overthrow the revolution in Paris.
The royalists lacked effective foreign support, with no strong army backing them.
France's military strength and revolutionary morale were significant factors in repelling invasions.
Many in France welcomed the gains of the revolution, deterring support for the royalists.
The Terror and actions by revolutionary armies discouraged royalist backing.
Revolutionary groups aimed for reforms in taxation, local government, justice, and the Church.
Page 27
The National Assembly implemented policies to address the financial crisis.
Sold Church lands and valuables, issued assignats (French currency), and introduced income tax targeting the wealthy.
Abolished consumption taxes like the 'Gabelle' and imposed a new land tax based on wealth.
Reformed local government by creating 83 new departments for better administration.
Established effective local government structures with elected officials.
Overhauled the justice system for openness, accountability, and people's election of key officials.
Transformed the Church into an agent of the state, with state control over clergy and church lands.
Major split over clergy taking an oath on the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
Political instability grew as questions arose about the king's role and power in the future.
Louis XVI's reluctance to agree to changes raised concerns about a return to the Ancien Régime.
Page 28:
Context of 1790:
Bad harvest in summer of 1790 leading to potential hunger and unrest.
Dissent not limited to lower classes; nobles and clergy resisting changes.
Debate on voting rights for elections; men, men of property, or even women suggested.
Radical press advocating for extreme measures with no censorship.
National Assembly's Success by 1790:
Criteria for success and how well Assembly met them.
Arguments for and against Assembly's success.
Fundamental problems faced by France at the end of 1790.
Changes in Government 1790-1795:
Hopes for stability in 1791 dashed by various factors.
New Constitution faced lack of agreement among French people.
Poor harvests, king's behavior, counter-revolutionary movement, and radicalism causing unrest.
Page 29:
Flight to Varennes:
King's attempted escape to Austrian Netherlands in June 1791.
Capture at Varennes, return to Paris, and becoming a prisoner.
Nobility escaping abroad, known as 'émigrés', posing threat to revolution.
Debate in Assembly between moderates and radicals on king's fate.
Champ de Mars:
Massacre in Paris in July, Champs de Mars, by National Guard.
Seen as counter-revolutionary, leading to radicalization.
Completion of new constitution in September 1791, establishing a constitutional monarchy.
Page 30:
King's Intentions:
King's perspective on France's situation and his role in it.
His plans to restore royal authority and deal with the revolution.
Foreign Threats and Impact of War:
Fear of intervention by Austria and Prussia to support Louis.
Nobles fleeing abroad and seeking help to restore order in France.
Declaration of Pilnitz in 1791 supporting Louis and opposing the revolution.
Page 31
Background of the Revolution
Poor harvest in 1791 led to a shortage of bread and rising food prices.
Clergy's refusal to take the oath caused anger.
Radicals in the Assembly demanded war against Austria and Prussia to force the king's support for the revolution.
Declaration of War
Assembly declared war on Austria in April 1792.
France was unprepared, leading to military disasters against the Austrians.
War forced French citizens to choose sides and led to an alliance of middle and working classes against the monarch and aristocrats.
The Journée
In August 1792, the September Massacres occurred in Paris.
The National Guard stormed the Tuileries Palace, leading to the arrest and imprisonment of the king and his family.
Power shifted from the Assembly to the Paris mob, marking a critical event in the revolution.
Page 32
Instability and Terror (1793-95)
National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.
Louis XVI was executed in early 1793, leading to increased enemies for the revolution.
Chaos and instability ensued due to ongoing war, financial strain, lack of experienced leaders, regional opposition, and food riots.
The radical press and the influence of the sans-culottes added to the turmoil.
THINK LIKE A HISTORIAN
Louis XVI faced challenges in upholding the Ancien Régime during the revolution.
The decision to execute Louis XVI in 1793 exacerbated instability and created more enemies for the revolution.
Various factors contributed to the chaos and unrest in France during 1793-95, including war, financial strain, lack of experienced leaders, regional opposition, and food shortages.
Page 34
Crimes Accused Against the King:
The king is accused of causing the blood of Frenchmen to flow.
Assessment of King's Guilt:
The king is considered guilty of the crimes mentioned in the source.
Significance of the King's Death:
The death of the king marked a turning point in the French Revolution.
It led to the establishment of a new Constitution and the rise of the Committee of Public Safety.
The Committee took radical actions, including the Law of Suspects, resulting in mass arrests and executions.
Page 35
Establishment of the Reign of Terror:
The Revolutionary Tribunal was instituted to punish enemies of the people.
Various offenses were listed that could lead to death penalties.
Cult of Robespierre:
Robespierre aimed to replace Roman Catholicism with a 'Republic of Virtue'.
Introduced the Cult of the Supreme Being and led ceremonial processions.
Views on Robespierre:
Robespierre is seen as a controversial figure with differing opinions on his role in the revolution.
Some believe he saved the revolution, while others criticize his dictatorial rule and executions.
Robespierre's Vision:
Robespierre envisioned a society based on virtue, duty, and loyalty to democracy.
He emphasized the importance of morality, honesty, and the rule of reason in governance.
Reign of Terror:
Robespierre aimed to eliminate enemies of his vision of the revolution.
Continued arrests and executions were carried out by Committees of Public Safety across France.
Page 36
Robespierre's arrest and execution
Many felt he was aiming to become a dictator with a police state
Arrested by deputies fearing the guillotine
Executed along with 80 supporters
Aftermath of Robespierre's death
Release of many prisoners
Divisions within the government between Girondins and Jacobins
White Terror of 1794–95
Closure of Jacobin Club and persecution of Reign of Terror affiliates
Paris running out of food
Mob attacking the Convention for power transfer to local communities
Arrest and execution of sans-culottes leaders
Proclamation of Louis XVIII as King
Page 37
Questions on the Terror
Definition, causes, leaders, victims, perspectives, necessity, implications, consequences, significance, coverage
Economic problems during the revolution
Influence of economy on political events
Abolition of feudal dues leading to income loss for landowners
Impact on small farmers and industries
Nationalization of Church land causing upheaval
Inflation due to reliance on assignats
Disruption of agriculture by war with Britain
Page 38
Establishment of the Directory
Constitution of August 1795 creating a balance of power
Structure with Council of Five Hundred and Council of Ancients
Selection of five directors
Aims and rule of the Directory
Aimed to restore stability and revolution achievements
Directors from the middle class ensuring no return to Ancien Régime abuses
Challenges faced by the Directory
Empty treasury and bankruptcy
Resentment towards conscription and rising prices
Internal divisions among factions
Support from the army to suppress uprisings
Opposition and survival of the Directory
Press freedom allowing expression of extreme views
Lack of cooperation among political groups aiding the survival of the Directory
Opposition from Jacobins and radicals
Support from the army crucial for maintaining power
Page 39
The Directory called on the army to suppress revolts
National Guard re-formed to bring under government control
Babeuf Plot in 1796 to overthrow the Directory
Led by Gracchus Babeuf
Advocated for vote for all, abolition of private property, equality for all (the plot was foiled and all involved were executed)
Manifesto of the Equals issued by Jacobin plotters
Calls for a new republic, Republic of Equals
Emphasizes equality and justice for all
Page 40
Royalists campaign for 1797 elections against the Directory
Emphasized poor economy and government failure
Coup of Fructidor by radical directors to suppress royalists
Imposed censorship, removed moderate directors
Survival of the Directory until 1799 due to various factors
Success in wars, territorial gains in Italy
Improved economy, sensible taxation, control of food prices
Effective local government, punishment for anti-Catholic actions
Downfall of the Directory in 1799
Tactical choices and mistakes led to loss of popularity
Coup of Prairial marked the end of the Directory
Napoleon Bonaparte's background and rise to power
Born in Corsica, military success led to political career
Directory's downfall paved
(INCOMPLETE)
Chapter 1: French Revolution (AICE EURO HISTORY)
The Ancien Régime
France in the late 18th century was ruled by Louis XVI, an absolute monarch.
France was difficult to govern due to regional differences, different legal systems, and customs barriers.
Peasants made up 80% of the population and faced heavy taxation, inefficient agriculture, and poverty.
Urban population faced unemployment, declining wages, and high food prices, leading to unrest and bread riots.
Middle class, educated and frustrated by lack of political power, played a crucial role in the revolution.
The Church and the Aristocracy
The Roman Catholic Church was wealthy, controlled education, and resisted reforms.
The aristocracy, a tiny minority, owned most of the land and wealth, paid few taxes, and enjoyed privileges.
French aristocracy was hostile to trade and commerce, unlike the British aristocracy.
Division within the clergy and aristocracy weakened their ability to resist revolutionary forces.
King Louis XVI and the Parlements
Louis XVI inherited absolute power but faced challenges from courtiers and ministers on the role of the monarch.
Some wanted to increase the king's power, while others sought to limit it by consulting the aristocracy.
Enlightenment ideas influenced a few to reform the system for efficiency and inclusivity.
Parlements, courts with noble lawyers, could delay or prevent royal orders, leading to conflicts with intendants appointed by the king.
In summary, the 1789 revolution in France was fueled by social divisions, economic hardships, discontent with the monarchy, resistance from the Church and aristocracy, and conflicting views on the role of the king in governance. The revolution was a response to the oppressive Ancien Régime and marked a significant shift in power dynamics within French society.
Page 11:
Divisions within the aristocracy and clergy reflected in local administration
Bitter local rivalries made France difficult to govern
Louis XVI was religious but weak and indecisive
Resistance to reform led to his execution in 1793
Enlightenment in 18th-century France
Influential thinkers like Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, Rousseau, and Quesnay
Criticized existing systems and advocated for improvements
Influence on revolutionary leaders and Napoleon Bonaparte
Importance of Enlightenment ideas
Provided a basis for the revolutionary process in France
Encouraged debate and argument on public issues
Helped shape the new governance after the collapse of the Ancien Régime
Page 12:
Impact of Enlightenment ideas on French society
Challenged established ideas and social structures
Advocated for equality before the law and independent thinking
Contributed to the start of the revolution in 1789
Political and economic factors in the revolution
Alliance with American colonists against Britain in 1778
Turgot's warnings against involvement in wars ignored
Necker's appointment as finance minister due to France's dire financial state
Page 13:
Jacques Necker (1732–1804)
Finance minister three times, caused and attempted to solve France's economic problems
Advised Louis XVI to call the Estates General in 1789
Faced challenges in accurately assessing royal finances and implementing reforms
Charles de Calonne's reforms in 1786
Submitted proposals to address France's economic problems
Recognized the need for financial reform to prevent bankruptcy
France's economic problems before the revolution
High state debts and borrowing at high interest rates
Costly war with Britain leading to deeper national debt
Growing concern about the state of royal finances and the need for stability
Page 14
Taxation Reform
Increase taxes for the wealthy to stimulate the economy and encourage commerce and industry.
Gain confidence in France's economy to borrow money at lower interest rates.
Assembly of Notables
Made up of nobles and clergy, with limited support for proposed reforms.
Lack of clarity on the role and authority of the Assembly.
Financial and Political Crisis
Calonne's dismissal led to public concern and protests.
Opposition to increased taxes and demands for accurate royal financial accounts.
Paris Parlement
Refused to support tax increases without accurate royal accounts.
King's refusal led to protests and banishment of parlement members.
Page 15
Growing Unrest
Anger at the king's refusal to intervene in the Netherlands.
Army viewed as unreliable due to lack of funds and incompetent officer corps.
Demand for social, economic, and political change through pamphlets and protests.
Economic Challenges
Hailstorms destroying harvest led to food shortage and higher prices.
Appointment of Necker as finance minister to address financial crisis.
Estates General
Summoned for the first time since 1614 to address France's problems.
Cahiers de doléances presented demands from the clergy, nobility, and the Third Estate.
Page 16
Cahiers de doléances
Demands from the clergy, nobility, and the Third Estate for reforms and rights.
Estates General Meeting
Held in May 1789 at Versailles amidst social, economic, and political unrest.
Expectations from the monarch, court, and the French people for significant outcomes.
Conflicting Aims
Challenges arose as the three Estates had conflicting goals.
Equal voting rights for all Estates in decision-making process.
Page 17
Estates General Opening Assembly
Engraved by Isidore Stanislas Helman after a drawing by Charles Monnet
King's main concern: financial problems
Educated middle class wanted extensive government overhaul
Third Estate demanded reforms, faced resistance from First and Second Estates
Third Estate changed name to 'National Assembly' on June 17, 1789
'Tennis Court Oath' taken by the National Assembly to establish a new constitution
Page 18
Tensions in France
Hunger due to poor harvest led to tense situation
King's unhelpful decisions fueled tensions
Dismissal of Necker seen as a setback for reforms
Responsibility for Crisis of 1789
Factors: King, Ancien Régime, Necker, Church, Aristocracy, French economy
Discussion on factors responsible for the crisis
Page 19
Responses to Louis XVI’s actions
Storming of the Bastille
Symbol of royal tyranny attacked on July 14, 1789
Bastille destroyed, governor killed
Parisian mob demonstrated anger and determination for change
French Revolution
'Great Fear' in summer of 1789
Mass refusal to pay taxes, looting of noblemen's homes
Third Estate representatives at Versailles took initiative
Page 20
August Decrees
Abolished privileges of nobles, duties owed by peasants to landlords, parlements, provincial estates, and reduced the status of the Roman Catholic Church in France.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Passed in August 1789 by the National Assembly.
Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers.
Established principles for the new government system.
Recognized rights like liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.
Page 21
Decree on Government Differences
Outlined principles like liberty, law, equality, innocence until proven guilty, freedom of speech, and public contribution.
Stressed the importance of law and public accountability.
Revolutionary Change
Differences between Ancien Régime and new decrees were revolutionary.
Supported by evidence like protection of rights, equality before the law, and public accountability.
Page 22
Fundamental Principles of Government
Established that power came from the nation, the National Assembly had legislative power, and the king was under the law.
Women's March on Versailles
Women marched to Versailles demanding changes.
King and royal family were escorted to Paris by the crowd.
Influence of Parisian Crowd
Radical Parisian crowd influenced revolutionary change.
National Assembly's move to Paris was significant.
Reflection
Defining Revolution
Methods of defining revolution varied.
Discussion on defining revolution may lead to changes in methods.
Influence of Events
Events like the Women's March on Versailles and public pressure led to revolutionary changes.
Significance of National Assembly
National Assembly's decisions and moves were crucial in the revolutionary period.
Page 23
Historians have different views on the reasons for the French Revolution in 1789
Liberals in the early 19th century believed it was a natural progression towards representative government
Conservatives viewed it as crimes by lower and middle classes leading to the Terror
Later historians suggested famine, political and ideological motivations, desire for equality and democracy
Page 24
French governments were unstable from 1790 to 1795 due to various factors
Lack of agreement on governance and deep antagonism between Paris and regions
Social and economic issues, worsened by war with Austria in 1792
Rapid radical changes, including abolition of monarchy and aristocracy
Creation of a new calendar during the revolutionary period
Started on 22 September 1792 after acceptance of the republican constitution
Napoleon later reverted to the old calendar in 1805
Issues remaining after the destruction of the old system
Getting the king to accept changes and ensuring the Assembly's capability
Need for a new type of government with shared power and fair systems
Page 25
Reliability of an image depicting the events in France during 1789
Shows the Third Estate breaking free from chains, causing fear in the aristocracy and clergy
Challenges faced by the Assembly in 1790
Lack of clear leadership and understanding of people's desires
Inexperience in lawmaking and opposition from nobility and clergy
Revolutionary groups in the Assembly
Formation of clubs representing conservatives, moderate reformers, and radical reformers
Jacobins as the most radical group advocating for the execution of the king and end of aristocracy
Feuillants and Girondins as other significant political clubs with differing ideologies
Failures of counter-revolutionary groups
Attempts to restore the Bourbon monarchy were unsuccessful due to lack of realism
Page 26
Louis XVI and his courtiers failed to understand the depth of anti-government sentiment in France before 1789.
The king could not accept limits to his powers and the need to rule with the people's consent.
The royalists, including Louis XVIII, lacked unity and effective leadership.
Different factions had conflicting aims on restoring the monarchy or establishing a constitutional monarchy.
Internal divisions weakened the royalists, and they underestimated the loyalty of many to the revolution.
France's opposition to the revolution was divided with varying aims.
Some prioritized restoring the Church over the king.
Regions like Brittany were willing to fight but not to overthrow the revolution in Paris.
The royalists lacked effective foreign support, with no strong army backing them.
France's military strength and revolutionary morale were significant factors in repelling invasions.
Many in France welcomed the gains of the revolution, deterring support for the royalists.
The Terror and actions by revolutionary armies discouraged royalist backing.
Revolutionary groups aimed for reforms in taxation, local government, justice, and the Church.
Page 27
The National Assembly implemented policies to address the financial crisis.
Sold Church lands and valuables, issued assignats (French currency), and introduced income tax targeting the wealthy.
Abolished consumption taxes like the 'Gabelle' and imposed a new land tax based on wealth.
Reformed local government by creating 83 new departments for better administration.
Established effective local government structures with elected officials.
Overhauled the justice system for openness, accountability, and people's election of key officials.
Transformed the Church into an agent of the state, with state control over clergy and church lands.
Major split over clergy taking an oath on the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
Political instability grew as questions arose about the king's role and power in the future.
Louis XVI's reluctance to agree to changes raised concerns about a return to the Ancien Régime.
Page 28:
Context of 1790:
Bad harvest in summer of 1790 leading to potential hunger and unrest.
Dissent not limited to lower classes; nobles and clergy resisting changes.
Debate on voting rights for elections; men, men of property, or even women suggested.
Radical press advocating for extreme measures with no censorship.
National Assembly's Success by 1790:
Criteria for success and how well Assembly met them.
Arguments for and against Assembly's success.
Fundamental problems faced by France at the end of 1790.
Changes in Government 1790-1795:
Hopes for stability in 1791 dashed by various factors.
New Constitution faced lack of agreement among French people.
Poor harvests, king's behavior, counter-revolutionary movement, and radicalism causing unrest.
Page 29:
Flight to Varennes:
King's attempted escape to Austrian Netherlands in June 1791.
Capture at Varennes, return to Paris, and becoming a prisoner.
Nobility escaping abroad, known as 'émigrés', posing threat to revolution.
Debate in Assembly between moderates and radicals on king's fate.
Champ de Mars:
Massacre in Paris in July, Champs de Mars, by National Guard.
Seen as counter-revolutionary, leading to radicalization.
Completion of new constitution in September 1791, establishing a constitutional monarchy.
Page 30:
King's Intentions:
King's perspective on France's situation and his role in it.
His plans to restore royal authority and deal with the revolution.
Foreign Threats and Impact of War:
Fear of intervention by Austria and Prussia to support Louis.
Nobles fleeing abroad and seeking help to restore order in France.
Declaration of Pilnitz in 1791 supporting Louis and opposing the revolution.
Page 31
Background of the Revolution
Poor harvest in 1791 led to a shortage of bread and rising food prices.
Clergy's refusal to take the oath caused anger.
Radicals in the Assembly demanded war against Austria and Prussia to force the king's support for the revolution.
Declaration of War
Assembly declared war on Austria in April 1792.
France was unprepared, leading to military disasters against the Austrians.
War forced French citizens to choose sides and led to an alliance of middle and working classes against the monarch and aristocrats.
The Journée
In August 1792, the September Massacres occurred in Paris.
The National Guard stormed the Tuileries Palace, leading to the arrest and imprisonment of the king and his family.
Power shifted from the Assembly to the Paris mob, marking a critical event in the revolution.
Page 32
Instability and Terror (1793-95)
National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.
Louis XVI was executed in early 1793, leading to increased enemies for the revolution.
Chaos and instability ensued due to ongoing war, financial strain, lack of experienced leaders, regional opposition, and food riots.
The radical press and the influence of the sans-culottes added to the turmoil.
THINK LIKE A HISTORIAN
Louis XVI faced challenges in upholding the Ancien Régime during the revolution.
The decision to execute Louis XVI in 1793 exacerbated instability and created more enemies for the revolution.
Various factors contributed to the chaos and unrest in France during 1793-95, including war, financial strain, lack of experienced leaders, regional opposition, and food shortages.
Page 34
Crimes Accused Against the King:
The king is accused of causing the blood of Frenchmen to flow.
Assessment of King's Guilt:
The king is considered guilty of the crimes mentioned in the source.
Significance of the King's Death:
The death of the king marked a turning point in the French Revolution.
It led to the establishment of a new Constitution and the rise of the Committee of Public Safety.
The Committee took radical actions, including the Law of Suspects, resulting in mass arrests and executions.
Page 35
Establishment of the Reign of Terror:
The Revolutionary Tribunal was instituted to punish enemies of the people.
Various offenses were listed that could lead to death penalties.
Cult of Robespierre:
Robespierre aimed to replace Roman Catholicism with a 'Republic of Virtue'.
Introduced the Cult of the Supreme Being and led ceremonial processions.
Views on Robespierre:
Robespierre is seen as a controversial figure with differing opinions on his role in the revolution.
Some believe he saved the revolution, while others criticize his dictatorial rule and executions.
Robespierre's Vision:
Robespierre envisioned a society based on virtue, duty, and loyalty to democracy.
He emphasized the importance of morality, honesty, and the rule of reason in governance.
Reign of Terror:
Robespierre aimed to eliminate enemies of his vision of the revolution.
Continued arrests and executions were carried out by Committees of Public Safety across France.
Page 36
Robespierre's arrest and execution
Many felt he was aiming to become a dictator with a police state
Arrested by deputies fearing the guillotine
Executed along with 80 supporters
Aftermath of Robespierre's death
Release of many prisoners
Divisions within the government between Girondins and Jacobins
White Terror of 1794–95
Closure of Jacobin Club and persecution of Reign of Terror affiliates
Paris running out of food
Mob attacking the Convention for power transfer to local communities
Arrest and execution of sans-culottes leaders
Proclamation of Louis XVIII as King
Page 37
Questions on the Terror
Definition, causes, leaders, victims, perspectives, necessity, implications, consequences, significance, coverage
Economic problems during the revolution
Influence of economy on political events
Abolition of feudal dues leading to income loss for landowners
Impact on small farmers and industries
Nationalization of Church land causing upheaval
Inflation due to reliance on assignats
Disruption of agriculture by war with Britain
Page 38
Establishment of the Directory
Constitution of August 1795 creating a balance of power
Structure with Council of Five Hundred and Council of Ancients
Selection of five directors
Aims and rule of the Directory
Aimed to restore stability and revolution achievements
Directors from the middle class ensuring no return to Ancien Régime abuses
Challenges faced by the Directory
Empty treasury and bankruptcy
Resentment towards conscription and rising prices
Internal divisions among factions
Support from the army to suppress uprisings
Opposition and survival of the Directory
Press freedom allowing expression of extreme views
Lack of cooperation among political groups aiding the survival of the Directory
Opposition from Jacobins and radicals
Support from the army crucial for maintaining power
Page 39
The Directory called on the army to suppress revolts
National Guard re-formed to bring under government control
Babeuf Plot in 1796 to overthrow the Directory
Led by Gracchus Babeuf
Advocated for vote for all, abolition of private property, equality for all (the plot was foiled and all involved were executed)
Manifesto of the Equals issued by Jacobin plotters
Calls for a new republic, Republic of Equals
Emphasizes equality and justice for all
Page 40
Royalists campaign for 1797 elections against the Directory
Emphasized poor economy and government failure
Coup of Fructidor by radical directors to suppress royalists
Imposed censorship, removed moderate directors
Survival of the Directory until 1799 due to various factors
Success in wars, territorial gains in Italy
Improved economy, sensible taxation, control of food prices
Effective local government, punishment for anti-Catholic actions
Downfall of the Directory in 1799
Tactical choices and mistakes led to loss of popularity
Coup of Prairial marked the end of the Directory
Napoleon Bonaparte's background and rise to power
Born in Corsica, military success led to political career
Directory's downfall paved
(INCOMPLETE)