Art History: Ancient Mesopotamia
Visual Analysis: The White Temple and its ziggurat in Uruk were built using mud bricks, and the temple was coated with whitewash to make it stand out. The ziggurat is a stepped structure, created by stacking bricks to form a high platform for the temple to sit on. This design was meant to bring the temple closer to the sky, showing its religious significance.
Contextual Analysis: The White Temple sits atop the Ziggurat, as a place for rituals in which a select few would speak to the Gods. The Ziggurat stood at the center of the city, representing its religiousness.The Ziggurat was used to symbolize the significance of the god/goddess honored there. The Temple is theorized to honor the sky god, "Anu."
Visual analysis: The Palette of King Narmer is made from greywacke and dates back to around 3000-2920 B.C.E. It is a large, flat stone, carved with detailed images on both sides, showing scenes of King Narmer's victory and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. The carvings highlight Narmer's power, using a style where the king is shown larger than others, making him the central focus.
Contextual analysis: The Palette of King Narmer served both a functional and symbolic purpose in ancient Egypt. Functionally, it was likely used for grinding and mixing cosmetics, but its elaborate carvings suggest it had a ceremonial role, possibly in rituals related to kingship or the gods. Created by skilled artisans during the Predynastic period around 3000-2920 B.C.E.
The palette was made for the elite, likely for temple use, where it would be seen by priests and others involved in religious practices. The imagery of Narmer defeating his enemies and wearing the crowns of both regions communicated his dominance and the divine sanction of his rule. People would have experienced this work as a powerful political and religious symbol, reinforcing the authority of the king and the unity of Egypt.
Identification:Statues of votive figures from the Square Temple at Eshnunna figures, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq), c. 2900–2350 B.C.E. (Early Dynastic period) Artist: Unkown
Visual Analysis: The Statues of Votive Figures from the Square Temple at Eshnunna are made from gypsum, limestone, and alabaster. They are small figures with large eyes, clasped hands, and cylindrical bodies, often shown in a prayerful pose. These statues were created to represent people in eternal prayer, symbolizing their devotion to the gods.
Contextual analysis: The Statues of Votive Figures from the Square Temple at Eshnunna were made for religious purposes, specifically to act as stand-ins for worshippers, offering continuous prayers to the gods. They were created by skilled artisans around 2900-2600 B.C.E. in ancient Mesopotamia, likely commissioned by individuals seeking to demonstrate their devotion and secure divine favor. These figures were placed in temples, where they would stand in front of the gods' statues, symbolizing the worshippers’ constant presence and piety. The statues were meant for the gods and the temple, and people would have experienced them as representations of their ongoing worship and connection to the divine, reinforcing their spiritual and social status.
Standard of Ur from the Royal Temple of Ur (modern Tell el-Muqayya, Iraq) Sumerian. 2600-2400 Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone
Visual analysis: The Standard of Ur, a Sumerian artifact from around 2600 BCE, is a rectangular box with intricate mosaics depicting scenes of war and peace. The "War" side shows a progression from soldiers in battle to captives presented to a central figure, likely a king. The "Peace" side contrasts this with scenes of a banquet, featuring figures in procession, musicians, and a feast, indicating prosperity and celebration. The use of lapis lazuli, shell, and red limestone highlights the artistry and importance of the piece, reflecting the hierarchical structure and values of Sumerian society.
Contextual analysis: The Standard of Ur reflects the social and political organization of early Sumerian civilization, emphasizing the dual aspects of war and peace in governance. It illustrates the king's central role in both military leadership and the provision of prosperity, underscoring the societal hierarchy. The artifact also offers insight into the wealth and trade networks of the time, as evidenced by the use of materials like lapis lazuli, which was sourced from distant regions.
Visual analysis:
The Code of Hammurabi is a tall basalt stele featuring a relief at the top that depicts King Hammurabi receiving the laws from the sun god Shamash, emphasizing divine authority. Below the relief, the cuneiform script is intricately inscribed in neat, vertical columns, outlining the legal codes. The stele's imposing height and detailed carvings are meant to convey the importance and solemnity of the laws, as well as Hammurabi's role as a divinely sanctioned ruler.
Contextual analysis:
The Code of Hammurabi, dating to around 1754 BCE, is one of the earliest known legal documents and reflects the complexities of Babylonian society. It established a legal framework that codified justice, emphasizing retribution and social order, particularly through the principle of "an eye for an eye." The laws were meant to ensure the king’s control over a diverse empire, addressing issues from property rights to family law. The stele also served as a public monument, asserting Hammurabi’s legacy as a just ruler whose authority was rooted in divine will.
ID: Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad, Iraq). Neo-Assyrian. c. 720-705 B.C.E. Alabaster.
Visual analysis:
The Lamassu, a colossal sculpture from the citadel of Sargon II, depicts a hybrid creature with the body of a bull or lion, wings of an eagle, and a human head, symbolizing strength, divinity, and wisdom. Carved in high relief, it combines front-facing and side-facing views, giving it an illusion of complete form from multiple angles. The detailed, intricate carvings, especially in the wings and beard, reflect the skill of Assyrian artists and the importance of the Lamassu as a protective figure.
Contextual Analysis:
The Lamassu served as a guardian figure at the entrances of Assyrian palaces, symbolizing the king's power and the divine protection over his realm. Positioned at the gates of Sargon II’s citadel, these figures were intended to ward off evil and intimidate visitors, reinforcing the might of the Assyrian Empire. The depiction of the Lamassu also reflects the Assyrians' belief in the combination of physical power, spiritual authority, and wisdom, attributes crucial for the stability and control of their vast empire.
ID: 030. Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes, Persepolis, Iran, Persian, ca. 520-465 BCE
Visual Analysis:
The Audience Hall (Apadana) of Darius and Xerxes at Persepolis is an expansive, columned space, characterized by its grand scale and elaborate reliefs. The towering columns, with intricate capitals featuring animal forms like bulls and lions, create a sense of majesty and power. The reliefs along the staircases depict processions of dignitaries from various subject nations bringing tribute, symbolizing the vastness and diversity of the Persian Empire.
Contextual Analysis:
The Apadana was the primary reception hall of the Persian kings, designed to showcase the empire's wealth, power, and cultural diversity. It served as a venue for grand ceremonies and diplomatic meetings, reflecting the central role of the Persian king as the ruler of a vast, multi-ethnic empire. The detailed reliefs emphasize the empire's strength and the king's ability to command loyalty from a wide array of peoples, underscoring the ideological and political significance of Persepolis as the heart of Persian authority.
Apadana
the great audience hall in ancient Persian palaces
bent-axis plan
A plan that incorporates two or more angular changes of direction, characteristic of Sumerian architecture.
Bitumen
a black sticky substance obtained from oil, used for covering roads or roofs
cella
The chamber at the center of an ancient temple; in a classical temple, the room in which the cult statue usually stood.
Cuneiform writing
First writing, created around 3000 B.C., created by the Sumerians, written with reed stylus,
hierarchical scale
the use of size to denote the relative importance of subjects in an artwork
hypostyle hall
a large interior room characterized by many closely spaced columns that support its roof
Lamassu
Assyrian guardian in the form of a man-headed winged bull
lapis lazuli
a semiprecious blue stone
Mesopotamia
A region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that developed the first urban societies. In the Bronze Age this area included Sumer and the Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian empires, In the Iron Age, it was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires.
mud brick
a brick made from baked mud
registers/friezes
one of a series of superimposed bands or friezes in a pictorial narrative, or the particular levels on which motifs are placed
Stele
A carved stone slab used to mark graves or to commemorate historical events.
Votive Statues
small devotional statues that Sumerians left in the ziggurat to appease their gods
Ziggurat
A rectangular tiered temple or terraced mound erected by the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians
White Temple and its ziggurat
Uruk (modern Warka, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 3500-3000 B.C.E. Mud brick.
Statues of votive figures, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna
Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 2700 B.C.E. Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone.
Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur
Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq. Sumerian. c. 2600-2400 B.C.E. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone.
Code of Hammurabi
Babylonian
Dates: 1792-1750 B.C.E.
Culture: (modern) Susian, Iran
Material: Basalt
Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II
Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad, Iraq). Neo-Assyrian. c. 720-705 B.C.E. Alabaster.
Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes
Persepolis, Iran. Persian. c. 520-465 B.C.E. Limestone.
Visual Analysis: The White Temple and its ziggurat in Uruk were built using mud bricks, and the temple was coated with whitewash to make it stand out. The ziggurat is a stepped structure, created by stacking bricks to form a high platform for the temple to sit on. This design was meant to bring the temple closer to the sky, showing its religious significance.
Contextual Analysis: The White Temple sits atop the Ziggurat, as a place for rituals in which a select few would speak to the Gods. The Ziggurat stood at the center of the city, representing its religiousness.The Ziggurat was used to symbolize the significance of the god/goddess honored there. The Temple is theorized to honor the sky god, "Anu."
Visual analysis: The Palette of King Narmer is made from greywacke and dates back to around 3000-2920 B.C.E. It is a large, flat stone, carved with detailed images on both sides, showing scenes of King Narmer's victory and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. The carvings highlight Narmer's power, using a style where the king is shown larger than others, making him the central focus.
Contextual analysis: The Palette of King Narmer served both a functional and symbolic purpose in ancient Egypt. Functionally, it was likely used for grinding and mixing cosmetics, but its elaborate carvings suggest it had a ceremonial role, possibly in rituals related to kingship or the gods. Created by skilled artisans during the Predynastic period around 3000-2920 B.C.E.
The palette was made for the elite, likely for temple use, where it would be seen by priests and others involved in religious practices. The imagery of Narmer defeating his enemies and wearing the crowns of both regions communicated his dominance and the divine sanction of his rule. People would have experienced this work as a powerful political and religious symbol, reinforcing the authority of the king and the unity of Egypt.
Identification:Statues of votive figures from the Square Temple at Eshnunna figures, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq), c. 2900–2350 B.C.E. (Early Dynastic period) Artist: Unkown
Visual Analysis: The Statues of Votive Figures from the Square Temple at Eshnunna are made from gypsum, limestone, and alabaster. They are small figures with large eyes, clasped hands, and cylindrical bodies, often shown in a prayerful pose. These statues were created to represent people in eternal prayer, symbolizing their devotion to the gods.
Contextual analysis: The Statues of Votive Figures from the Square Temple at Eshnunna were made for religious purposes, specifically to act as stand-ins for worshippers, offering continuous prayers to the gods. They were created by skilled artisans around 2900-2600 B.C.E. in ancient Mesopotamia, likely commissioned by individuals seeking to demonstrate their devotion and secure divine favor. These figures were placed in temples, where they would stand in front of the gods' statues, symbolizing the worshippers’ constant presence and piety. The statues were meant for the gods and the temple, and people would have experienced them as representations of their ongoing worship and connection to the divine, reinforcing their spiritual and social status.
Standard of Ur from the Royal Temple of Ur (modern Tell el-Muqayya, Iraq) Sumerian. 2600-2400 Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone
Visual analysis: The Standard of Ur, a Sumerian artifact from around 2600 BCE, is a rectangular box with intricate mosaics depicting scenes of war and peace. The "War" side shows a progression from soldiers in battle to captives presented to a central figure, likely a king. The "Peace" side contrasts this with scenes of a banquet, featuring figures in procession, musicians, and a feast, indicating prosperity and celebration. The use of lapis lazuli, shell, and red limestone highlights the artistry and importance of the piece, reflecting the hierarchical structure and values of Sumerian society.
Contextual analysis: The Standard of Ur reflects the social and political organization of early Sumerian civilization, emphasizing the dual aspects of war and peace in governance. It illustrates the king's central role in both military leadership and the provision of prosperity, underscoring the societal hierarchy. The artifact also offers insight into the wealth and trade networks of the time, as evidenced by the use of materials like lapis lazuli, which was sourced from distant regions.
Visual analysis:
The Code of Hammurabi is a tall basalt stele featuring a relief at the top that depicts King Hammurabi receiving the laws from the sun god Shamash, emphasizing divine authority. Below the relief, the cuneiform script is intricately inscribed in neat, vertical columns, outlining the legal codes. The stele's imposing height and detailed carvings are meant to convey the importance and solemnity of the laws, as well as Hammurabi's role as a divinely sanctioned ruler.
Contextual analysis:
The Code of Hammurabi, dating to around 1754 BCE, is one of the earliest known legal documents and reflects the complexities of Babylonian society. It established a legal framework that codified justice, emphasizing retribution and social order, particularly through the principle of "an eye for an eye." The laws were meant to ensure the king’s control over a diverse empire, addressing issues from property rights to family law. The stele also served as a public monument, asserting Hammurabi’s legacy as a just ruler whose authority was rooted in divine will.
ID: Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad, Iraq). Neo-Assyrian. c. 720-705 B.C.E. Alabaster.
Visual analysis:
The Lamassu, a colossal sculpture from the citadel of Sargon II, depicts a hybrid creature with the body of a bull or lion, wings of an eagle, and a human head, symbolizing strength, divinity, and wisdom. Carved in high relief, it combines front-facing and side-facing views, giving it an illusion of complete form from multiple angles. The detailed, intricate carvings, especially in the wings and beard, reflect the skill of Assyrian artists and the importance of the Lamassu as a protective figure.
Contextual Analysis:
The Lamassu served as a guardian figure at the entrances of Assyrian palaces, symbolizing the king's power and the divine protection over his realm. Positioned at the gates of Sargon II’s citadel, these figures were intended to ward off evil and intimidate visitors, reinforcing the might of the Assyrian Empire. The depiction of the Lamassu also reflects the Assyrians' belief in the combination of physical power, spiritual authority, and wisdom, attributes crucial for the stability and control of their vast empire.
ID: 030. Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes, Persepolis, Iran, Persian, ca. 520-465 BCE
Visual Analysis:
The Audience Hall (Apadana) of Darius and Xerxes at Persepolis is an expansive, columned space, characterized by its grand scale and elaborate reliefs. The towering columns, with intricate capitals featuring animal forms like bulls and lions, create a sense of majesty and power. The reliefs along the staircases depict processions of dignitaries from various subject nations bringing tribute, symbolizing the vastness and diversity of the Persian Empire.
Contextual Analysis:
The Apadana was the primary reception hall of the Persian kings, designed to showcase the empire's wealth, power, and cultural diversity. It served as a venue for grand ceremonies and diplomatic meetings, reflecting the central role of the Persian king as the ruler of a vast, multi-ethnic empire. The detailed reliefs emphasize the empire's strength and the king's ability to command loyalty from a wide array of peoples, underscoring the ideological and political significance of Persepolis as the heart of Persian authority.
Apadana
the great audience hall in ancient Persian palaces
bent-axis plan
A plan that incorporates two or more angular changes of direction, characteristic of Sumerian architecture.
Bitumen
a black sticky substance obtained from oil, used for covering roads or roofs
cella
The chamber at the center of an ancient temple; in a classical temple, the room in which the cult statue usually stood.
Cuneiform writing
First writing, created around 3000 B.C., created by the Sumerians, written with reed stylus,
hierarchical scale
the use of size to denote the relative importance of subjects in an artwork
hypostyle hall
a large interior room characterized by many closely spaced columns that support its roof
Lamassu
Assyrian guardian in the form of a man-headed winged bull
lapis lazuli
a semiprecious blue stone
Mesopotamia
A region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that developed the first urban societies. In the Bronze Age this area included Sumer and the Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian empires, In the Iron Age, it was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires.
mud brick
a brick made from baked mud
registers/friezes
one of a series of superimposed bands or friezes in a pictorial narrative, or the particular levels on which motifs are placed
Stele
A carved stone slab used to mark graves or to commemorate historical events.
Votive Statues
small devotional statues that Sumerians left in the ziggurat to appease their gods
Ziggurat
A rectangular tiered temple or terraced mound erected by the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians
White Temple and its ziggurat
Uruk (modern Warka, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 3500-3000 B.C.E. Mud brick.
Statues of votive figures, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna
Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 2700 B.C.E. Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone.
Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur
Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq. Sumerian. c. 2600-2400 B.C.E. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone.
Code of Hammurabi
Babylonian
Dates: 1792-1750 B.C.E.
Culture: (modern) Susian, Iran
Material: Basalt
Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II
Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad, Iraq). Neo-Assyrian. c. 720-705 B.C.E. Alabaster.
Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes
Persepolis, Iran. Persian. c. 520-465 B.C.E. Limestone.
