US Constitution Summary

The U.S. Constitution

• Enduring symbol of democracy.

• Culmination of American & British political thought.

• Resulted from compromises after the failure of the first government.

Colonial Concerns & Independence

• British rule concerns led to independence.

• Influenced by John Locke's natural rights ideas.

• Declaration of Independence in 1776.

For many years the British colonists in North America had peacefully accepted rule by the king and Parliament. They were proud to be Englishmen. Much of their pride, however, stemmed from their belief that they were heirs to a tradition of limited government and royal acknowledgement of the rights of their subjects.
Colonists’ pride in their English liberties gave way to dismay when they perceived that these liberties were being abused. People had come to regard life, liberty, and property not as gifts from the monarch but as natural rights no government could take away. A chain of incidents—the Proclamation of 1763, the trial of smugglers in courts without juries, the imposition of taxes without the colonists’ consent, and the attempted interference with self-government in the colonies—convinced many colonists that the social contract between the British government and its citizens had been broken. In 1776, the Second Continental Congress declared American independence from Great Britain.

Articles of Confederation

• First government that aimed to limit central power.

• Proved too weak (lacked taxation, commerce regulation, army).

• Led to the Constitutional Convention of 1787.

Fearful of creating a system so powerful that it might abuse its citizens, the men who drafted the Articles of Confederation deliberately sought to limit the powers of the national government. The states maintained the right to govern their residents, while the national government could declare war, coin money, and conduct foreign affairs but little else. Its inability to impose taxes, regulate commerce, or raise an army hindered its ability to defend the nation or pay its debts. A solution had to be found.

Constitutional Convention of 1787

• Sought to balance state autonomy with a stronger national government.

• Key debates: representation, slavery, federal power, individual liberty.

• Resulted in compromises like Great Compromise & Three-Fifths Compromise.

Realizing that flaws in the Articles of Confederation could harm the new country and recognizing that the Articles could not easily be revised as originally intended, delegates from the states who met in Philadelphia from May through September 1787 set about drafting a new governing document. The United States that emerged from the Constitutional Convention in September was not a confederation, but it was a republic whose national government had been strengthened greatly. Congress had been transformed into a bicameral legislature with additional powers, and a national judicial system had been created. Most importantly, a federal system had been established with the power to govern the new country.
To satisfy the concerns of those who feared an overly strong central government, the framers of the Constitution created a system with separation of powers and checks and balances. Although such measures satisfied many, concerns still lingered that the federal government remained too powerful.

Ratification

• Federalists (supported Constitution) vs. Anti-Federalists (feared central power).

• The Federalist Papers influenced public opinion.

Anti-Federalists objected to the power the Constitution gave the federal government and the absence of a bill of rights to protect individual liberties. The Federalists countered that a strong government was necessary to lead the new nation and promised to add a bill of rights to the Constitution. The Federalist Papers, in particular, argued in favor of ratification and sought to convince people that the new government would not become tyrannical. Finally, in June 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to approve the Constitution, making it the law of the land. The large and prosperous states of Virginia and New York followed shortly thereafter, and the remaining states joined as well.

Bill Of Rights

• The initial ten amendments.

• Added to protect individual liberties.

Amendments Post-1789

• Twenty-seven amendments since 1789.

• Adapted to changing needs.

• Key changes: abolished slavery, expanded voting rights.

One of the problems with the Articles of Confederation was the difficulty of changing it. To prevent this difficulty from recurring, the framers provided a method for amending the Constitution that required a two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress and in three-quarters of state legislatures to approve a change.
The possibility of amending the Constitution helped ensure its ratification, although many feared the powerful federal government it created would deprive them of their rights. To allay their anxieties, the framers promised that a Bill of Rights safeguarding individual liberties would be added following ratification. These ten amendments were formally added to the document in 1791 and other amendments followed over the years. Among the most important were those ending slavery, granting citizenship to African Americans, and giving the right to vote to Americans regardless of race, color, or sex.

Key Concepts

• Natural Rights: \text{Life, liberty, and property}. Influenced by John Locke.

• Social Contract: Implicit agreement between people and their government.

• Great Compromise: Bicameral legislature (Senate and House of Representatives).

• Three-Fifths Compromise: Enslaved population counted as \frac{3}{5}.

• Separation of Powers: Division of government into three branches.

• Checks and Balances: System to limit power of each branch.

• Federal System: Division of power between federal and state governments.

• Enumerated Powers: Powers explicitly given to the federal government.

• Reserved Powers: Powers reserved to the states.

• Supremacy Clause: Federal law is supreme to state laws.

Key Figures

• John Locke: Influential Enlightenment thinker.

• Thomas Jefferson: Drafted the Declaration of Independence.

• James Madison: Key figure in the Constitutional Convention and author of The Federalist Papers.

• Alexander Hamilton: Author of The Federalist Papers and advocate for a strong federal government.

Key Terms

Constitution:
A document that embodies the fundamental laws and principles by which the United States is governed.

Democracy:
A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives.

Republic:
A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch.

Federalism:
A system of government in which power is divided between a national (federal) government and state governments.

Separation of Powers:
The division of governmental power among three branches: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial.

Checks and Balances:
A system in which each branch of government