Adolescent Development week 8

By the end of this topic, you will be able to:

Describe the historical emergence and developmental functions of secondary schooling in adolescence across different cultural and socioeconomic contexts.
Evaluate the factors that contribute to academic engagement and achievement, including parenting styles, peer influence, gender, and school characteristics.
Analyse the developmental opportunities and risks associated with part-time work during adolescence, with reference to Australian employment patterns and regulations.
Apply theoretical frameworks (e.g., Super’s career development theory, Holland’s personality types) to understand how adolescents form vocational identities and make career choices.
Discuss the rise of new career aspirations among adolescents, such as social media influencing, and critically reflect on the psychological and cultural factors shaping these trends.

8.1 | Schooling

The Rise and Role of Schooling in Adolescence

The emergence of secondary schooling as a normative feature of adolescence is a relatively recent historical development. Until the early 20th century, access to education beyond primary school was limited and largely reserved for the elite classes in Western nations.

In the United States, for example, only 5% of 14- to 17-year-olds attended school in 1890.
This rose to over 90% by the 1970s, driven by compulsory education laws during the so-called “Age of Adolescence” (Arnett & Taber, 1994).

Globally, the expansion of secondary education has been linked to economic development and industrialisation, which reduced the need for adolescent labour—especially in developing nations.

Schooling during adolescence plays critical developmental and societal roles:

Provides academic training, socialisation, and workforce preparation
Supports identity formation
Is linked to long-term health, income, and life satisfaction (Lloyd et al., 2008)

However, access to schooling and experiences within school are shaped by broader cultural and structural forces, including:

National education policy
Gender norms
Economic inequality

For instance:

In developed nations, girls often outperform boys academically and are more likely to pursue tertiary education.
In many developing countries, school attendance remains limited, particularly for girls.

What Makes Schooling Effective?

Several structural and relational factors contribute to effective schooling.

Positive School Climate

A strong predictor of engagement and achievement includes:

Supportive teacher-student relationships
High academic expectations
A sense of safety and belonging (Wang & Holcombe, 2010; Jia et al., 2009)

These elements mirror the characteristics of authoritative parenting, combining warmth with structure (Haynes et al., 1997).

School Size

Larger schools offer a broader curriculum.
Smaller schools tend to support stronger relationships, more extracurricular involvement, and increased opportunities for leadership roles, which foster belonging and engagement (Crosnoe et al., 2004; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2009).

Student Engagement

Despite these efforts, school engagement often declines during adolescence.
Surveys show:

Many secondary students feel bored, disconnected, and unmotivated.
Few report high levels of psychological engagement with schoolwork (Steinberg, 1996; Guthrie, 2008).

Understanding Academic Achievement

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Family background, especially SES, is a strong predictor of academic achievement:

Middle-class adolescents tend to earn higher grades and are more likely to pursue post-secondary education (Kelly, 2004; Antonio, 2009).
SES advantages include:
- Better nutrition and healthcare
- Lower chronic stress
- Access to cognitive and cultural capital

Parenting Style

Authoritative parenting—marked by warmth and high expectations—supports achievement:

These parents are involved in their adolescent’s education, monitor progress, and encourage school participation (Steinberg, 1996; Paulson, 1994).
Even in low-SES families, authoritative parenting can promote better academic outcomes (Annunziata et al., 2006).

Peer Influence

Peers play a significant role in shaping academic behaviours and attitudes:

Adolescents tend to mirror the academic values of their friends.
Those with high-achieving peers benefit through modelling, encouragement, and a shared academic orientation (Epstein, 1983; Simons-Morton & Chen, 2009).

Gender Differences

Across Western countries:

Girls consistently outperform boys in most subjects
Girls are more likely to:
- Complete high school
- Be engaged in class
- Have stronger teacher relationships
- Show higher intrinsic motivation (Rueger et al., 2010; NCES, 2012)

However, it is crucial to avoid overgeneralising—there is substantial variability within each gender.

Key Concepts/Definitions

Secondary schooling became a normative part of adolescence in the 20th century, expanding rapidly due to compulsory education laws and economic shifts.
Schooling functions include not only academic instruction but also identity formation, socialisation, and preparation for adult roles and employment.
School climate refers to the quality of relationships and learning environment in a school, with supportive, structured settings linked to higher student engagement.
School size influences student experiences, with smaller schools often promoting stronger connections, leadership opportunities, and involvement.
School disengagement tends to increase during adolescence, with many students reporting boredom and a lack of psychological investment in learning.
Socioeconomic status is a strong predictor of academic achievement, affecting access to resources and the transmission of cultural and cognitive capital.
Parenting style impacts academic outcomes, with authoritative parenting linked to higher achievement due to a combination of warmth and high expectations.
Peer influence significantly affects academic attitudes and behaviours, especially when adolescents are surrounded by high-achieving or academically motivated friends.

8.2 | Work & Adolescent Development

Patterns and Contexts of Adolescent Work

For many adolescents, paid employment represents a key developmental milestone—supporting their independence, identity formation, and sense of responsibility.

In Australia, most adolescents engage in part-time or casual work during secondary school, often starting between ages 14 and 16 (DEWR, 2023).
Typical jobs include roles in retail, hospitality, babysitting, tutoring, and other service-based industries.
Although adolescent work patterns shift over time in response to economic and policy changes, it remains a culturally embedded feature of Australian adolescence.

Influences on Job Type

The kinds of jobs adolescents hold vary by:

Age: Younger teens often do informal work (e.g., babysitting), while older adolescents work in regulated employment (e.g., cafés, supermarkets).
Gender: Girls more often take roles in care and service sectors, while boys are more likely to do physical or outdoor labour.
Socioeconomic background and local opportunities also play a role.

School-based programs like VETiS (Vocational Education and Training in Schools) and apprenticeships offer structured pathways for students interested in non-academic careers (Australian Government, 2022).

Cultural and Socioeconomic Factors

Cultural and socioeconomic background influences both the meaning and impact of adolescent work:

In working-class or migrant families, adolescents may work to support the household, reflecting values of contribution and shared responsibility (Kao et al., 2013).
In middle-class families, work may be discouraged during senior years to prioritise academic success.
Gender norms further influence work roles, reflecting broader patterns of socialisation and shaping adolescents’ skill development (Bachman et al., 2013).

Benefits and Risks of Adolescent Employment

Potential Benefits (under 15–20 hours/week during school terms)

Improved time-management, confidence, financial literacy, and autonomy
Opportunities for early career exploration and vocational identity development
Common motivators include:
- Earning money
- Gaining experience
- Contributing to family savings or future goals (Mortimer, 2010; Laws & Staiger, 2010)

Potential Risks (over 20 hours/week)

Increased stress, fatigue, and reduced academic performance
Lower engagement in extracurricular and family life
Poor sleep hygiene and declining motivation (White & Wyn, 2013)
Elevated risks in unsupervised, repetitive, or unsafe work environments (Staff et al., 2010)

The quality of the work environment plays a crucial role. Supportive workplaces can boost self-efficacy, while exploitation or harassment can damage wellbeing—especially for adolescents in precarious or under-the-table jobs (Monahan et al., 2011).

Impacts on School and Development

The relationship between work and education is complex and context-dependent:

Moderate work hours may enhance discipline and engagement, particularly for students with low academic motivation or from lower-SES backgrounds.
High-intensity work is negatively linked to:
- Year 12 completion
- Tertiary aspirations (Robinson & Walstab, 2013)

Role Strain and Balance

Balancing school, work, family, and social life can lead to role strain—stress arising from competing demands. Outcomes depend on:

Hours worked
Job quality
Individual resilience
Support from families, schools, and employers

Vocational Identity and Career Development

Part-time work can support the crystallisation of vocational identity, a key concept in Super’s career development theory. Through work, adolescents:

Clarify interests, values, and skills
Begin to explore career pathways, even when jobs are unrelated to future goals

School-based programs like:

Structured Workplace Learning (SWL)
Apprenticeships

help integrate real-world work with educational planning, enhancing career development opportunities.

Promoting Positive Work Experiences

Each Australian state and territory has child employment laws regulating:

Minimum age
Maximum hours
Work conditions

Example: In Victoria, adolescents under 15 require a child employment permit and cannot work during school hours.

However:

Enforcement varies, and not all adolescents (especially in informal jobs) are adequately protected.
Workplace safety education in schools and communities is essential to prepare adolescents for their employment experiences (DEWR, 2023).

Key Concepts/Definitions

Adolescent employment refers to part-time or casual work undertaken by adolescents, often starting between ages 14 and 16, and is a common feature of secondary school life in Australia.
Job types vary by age, gender, and socioeconomic background, with informal jobs more common among younger adolescents and formal employment or school-based programs more typical for older teens.
Cultural and socioeconomic context influences adolescent work, with some families encouraging paid work for financial contribution and others prioritising academic achievement.
Work intensity matters, as working fewer than 15–20 hours per week during school term is generally associated with positive developmental outcomes, such as autonomy and financial literacy.
Negative effects of high-intensity work include stress, academic decline, poor sleep, and reduced motivation, especially when job conditions are poor or unsupervised.
Work quality plays a key role in outcomes, with supportive and skill-building environments fostering confidence, while exploitative or unsafe conditions can be harmful.
School-work balance is shaped by individual, family, and contextual factors, with moderate work potentially enhancing structure but high-intensity work competing with educational goals.
Role strain theory explains how adolescents may experience stress from juggling school, work, and social responsibilities, especially when coping resources are limited.
Vocational identity begins to form through work experiences during adolescence, helping individuals explore and clarify future career interests and values.
Legal protections for adolescent workers in Australia regulate hours and conditions, but enforcement is uneven, making work safety education critical for supporting positive employment experiences.

8.3 | Occupational Choice

Forming Career Aspirations in Adolescence

Adolescence is a crucial period for crystallising career aspirations and forming vocational identity. While children often imagine idealised future jobs, adolescents begin to seriously reflect on:

Interests
Abilities
Values
and how these align with real-world work opportunities.

In Australia, this process often begins in Year 9 or 10, when students choose electives or vocational subjects that shape their post-school pathways.

Personality and Career Fit

One widely used model is Holland’s vocational personality types:

Realistic, Investigative, Social, Conventional, Enterprising, Artistic

These profiles help adolescents explore careers that align with their personality traits. Tools like:

MyFuture
The Australian Blueprint for Career Development

are commonly used in schools to guide students through career planning.

The Influence of Gender

Despite progress in gender equality, many Australian occupations remain highly gendered (ABS, 2022):

Females dominate care-related and service professions
Males dominate trades and STEM fields

These trends are shaped by:

Cultural expectations
Anticipated future roles (e.g., caregiving responsibilities)

Such norms influence adolescents’ perceived career compatibility and may result in more flexible or conservative choices, especially for young women.

Understanding Career Development

Donald Super’s Career Development Theory outlines five life stages:

Growth (birth–14)
Exploration (15–24)
Establishment (25–44)
Maintenance (45–64)
Disengagement (65+)

Adolescence is primarily situated in the Exploration stage, where individuals:

Investigate career options
Align education and experiences with emerging values and interests

Examples:

A Year 10 student interested in science may choose biology and psychology, exploring health pathways
A student who enjoys hands-on work might pursue a VET program or school-based apprenticeship

Contemporary Shifts

Modern models emphasise that career paths are often non-linear. Young people today:

May change jobs or industries 5–7 times across their lives (FYA, 2018)
Need adaptability, lifelong learning, and transferable skills

This approach encourages adolescents to pursue identity-based work that reflects personal meaning—not just financial stability.

The School-to-Work Transition in Australia

Australian adolescents transition into full-time work via:

University
Apprenticeships
Traineeships
Direct workforce entry

Programs like:

VET in Schools (VETiS)
Structured Workplace Learning (SWL)
School-based apprenticeships

support practical pathways—especially valuable for students less engaged in academic tracks (Smith & Green, 2005).

The “Forgotten Half”

Not all students pursue higher education. Those who enter the workforce directly:

Often face precarious employment, lower wages, and limited support
Are overrepresented in casual or underemployment (Lamb & Huo, 2017)

This has prompted policy focus on equitable vocational preparation.

Apprenticeships and Traineeships

Australia’s system provides:

Paid work + nationally recognised training
Strong options in trades, hospitality, healthcare, and community services

Though less integrated than European models (e.g., Germany), apprenticeships remain a popular and respected route to skilled employment.

Career Education in Schools

Career education is now mandatory in most Australian states and territories. From early secondary school, students are taught to:

Explore interests
Investigate career options
Build practical skills (e.g., résumés, interviews)

National resources include:

National Career Education Strategy
CICA accreditation for career practitioners (DESE, 2019)

These aim to enhance consistency and quality of support across schools.

Career Uncertainty and the Future of Work

Today’s adolescents are aware that career trajectories are rarely linear. The modern economy increasingly features:

Freelance and gig work
Digital careers
Portfolio employment

To succeed, adolescents need to prepare for:

Lifelong upskilling
Adaptability
Multiple career transitions

Identity-Based Work

More adolescents now seek “identity-based work”—careers aligned with:

Passions
Values
Life goals

Making informed, values-driven choices is becoming essential to navigate a fluid career landscape with confidence and purpose.

The Rise of Influencer Careers

A Global Shift

The aspiration to become a social media influencer has surged among adolescents:

In 2019, 86% of U.S. youth said they would try becoming influencers
By 2023, 57% of Gen Z aspired to it; 53% considered it a respectable career (CBS News, 2019)

This reflects a cultural move toward:

Creative, self-managed digital careers
Autonomy, visibility, and flexibility

Trends in Australia

78.3% of Australians are active social media users (Meltwater, 2024)
Among 18–29-year-olds, 99% use social media, with 89% logging in daily (Musetti et al., 2022)

This environment fuels influencer aspirations—especially among adolescents immersed in creator culture.

Psychological Demands

Influencer careers offer:

Creative expression
Financial freedom
Flexible schedules

But also involve:

Constant content creation
Algorithmic pressure
Public scrutiny and burnout

Personality and Influencer Motivation

A 2025 study by Misiak et al. (UK and Poland) found that adolescents aspiring to influencer careers tend to score higher in:

Extraversion
Narcissism
Histrionic traits (linked to attention-seeking and social approval)

Conscientiousness was inconsistently related—suggesting a preference for creativity and visibility over structured discipline.

Most adolescents did not initially list “influencer” as a top career but rated it highly when prompted, suggesting it is often seen as a:

Supplementary identity
Side career alongside traditional work

Supporting Adolescents in New Career Landscapes

The rise of “micro-influencers” and creator culture shows how adolescents blend digital identity with professional goals.

Educators and counsellors should:

Recognise influencing as a valid aspiration
Provide realistic guidance on its demands and risks
Help adolescents integrate digital skills into broader career planning

Conversations around visibility, autonomy, and identity are increasingly relevant as personal branding and professional identity converge.

Key Concepts/Definitions

Vocational identity refers to the development of a stable sense of occupational goals, interests, and values, which begins to crystallise during adolescence as young people reflect on real-world work opportunities.
Holland’s vocational personality types categorise individuals into six career-related profiles—realistic, investigative, social, conventional, enterprising, and artistic—to help match personality with suitable work environments.
Gendered career choices persist in Australia, with females overrepresented in care professions and males in trades and STEM, shaped by social norms and anticipated life roles.
Super’s Career Development Theory outlines five stages of career growth, with adolescence typically located in the exploration stage where individuals align their interests and abilities with career options.
Non-linear career paths are increasingly common, with most young Australians expected to change careers multiple times, requiring adaptability and a focus on transferable skills.
School-to-work transition includes multiple pathways such as university, apprenticeships, and direct employment, with programs like VETiS and SWL supporting work-readiness and skill development.
The “forgotten half” refers to adolescents who do not pursue university and often enter the workforce without structured support, facing increased risks of underemployment and instability.
Career education is embedded in Australian secondary schools, promoting exploration of interests, practical preparation (e.g., CV writing), and use of platforms like MyFuture to support informed decision-making.
Influencer careers have become increasingly popular among adolescents, driven by desires for flexibility, visibility, and creative expression, though these roles also carry hidden demands like content burnout and public scrutiny.
Identity-based work is a growing career aspiration among adolescents, characterised by seeking roles aligned with personal passions and values rather than traditional measures of stability or prestige.