Context: This period covers the later reign of Queen Elizabeth I, often considered the 'Golden Age' of England. It was a time of significant social, economic, religious, and political change and challenges.
Key Themes:
Religious Tensions: Managing the religious settlement and challenges from Catholics and Puritans.
Political Stability: Maintaining Elizabeth's authority and dealing with plots and rebellions.
Economic Development: Growth in trade and exploration, but also economic problems like poverty and inflation.
Social Structure: Rigid social hierarchy and the lives of different social classes.
Culture and Arts: Flourishing of arts, literature, and theatre.
Foreign Policy: Navigating complex international relations, particularly with Spain and France, and dealing with war.
Succession: The ongoing issue of Elizabeth's lack of heir and the succession crisis.
Social Hierarchy: A rigid and hierarchical structure determined by birth and wealth.
Monarch: Queen Elizabeth I at the top, holding ultimate power.
Nobility: Wealthy landowners (Dukes, Earls, Barons). Held high positions in government and society. Expected to advise the Queen and maintain order.
Gentry: Landowners below the nobility (Knights, Esquires, Gentlemen). Increasingly important in local administration and as Justices of the Peace (JPs).
Merchants: Wealthy traders and businessmen in towns and cities. Growing in wealth and influence.
Yeomen Farmers: Owned their own land, prosperous farmers.
Tenant Farmers: Rented land from landowners.
Labourers: Agricultural workers, often poor and vulnerable.
Urban Poor: Unemployed or underemployed in towns and cities, facing poverty and hardship.
Vagrants and Beggars: Homeless and destitute, seen as a social problem.
The Great Chain of Being: Belief in a divinely ordained social order, with everyone having a fixed place in society. Challenging this order was seen as challenging God's will.
Role of Women:
Limited Legal and Social Rights: Subordinate to men, especially fathers and husbands.
Domestic Sphere: Expected to manage the household, raise children, and be obedient wives.
Queen Elizabeth I: An exception, a powerful female ruler, but her gender was often commented upon and sometimes seen as a weakness by contemporaries.
Variations by Social Class: Noblewomen had more influence than common women, but still operated within constraints.
Economic Growth: Expansion of trade, particularly in cloth, and exploration led to increased wealth for some.
Trade and Exploration:
Cloth Trade: Dominant industry, exporting woollen cloth to Europe.
New Trade Routes: Seeking new markets and goods in Asia and the Americas.
Merchant Adventurers and East India Company: Joint-stock companies established to promote trade and exploration.
Privateering: English ships, like those of Francis Drake, attacking Spanish ships and colonies for profit and to weaken Spain.
Economic Problems:
Inflation: Rising prices due to population growth, debasement of coinage by previous monarchs, and influx of silver from the New World. Reduced living standards, especially for the poor.
Poverty: Significant poverty, particularly in towns and rural areas. Enclosure movement contributed to rural unemployment and vagrancy.
Poor Laws: Government attempted to address poverty through Poor Laws, distinguishing between the 'deserving' and 'undeserving' poor.
Enclosure: Fencing off common land for sheep farming, displacing farmers and labourers and leading to social unrest.
Elizabeth's Power: A strong and assertive monarch, but ruled by consent and within the framework of the constitution.
Royal Prerogative: Areas of power Elizabeth controlled directly, such as foreign policy, declaring war, and the succession.
Patronage: Elizabeth controlled appointments and favours, using patronage to reward loyalty and maintain control over the nobility.
Propaganda and Image: Cultivated a powerful image as the 'Virgin Queen', wise and dedicated to her country.
Privy Council: Elizabeth's key advisors, responsible for day-to-day government, law and order, and implementing policy.
Key Councillors: William Cecil (Lord Burghley), Francis Walsingham, Robert Dudley (Earl of Leicester), Robert Cecil.
Managing Factions: Elizabeth skillfully managed different factions within the Council to maintain her own power.
Parliament: Composed of the House of Lords (nobility and bishops) and the House of Commons (elected gentry and merchants).
Limited Power: Parliament could advise the monarch and pass laws (Acts of Parliament), but Elizabeth could veto legislation.
Taxation: Parliament's main power was to grant taxes to the monarch. Elizabeth tried to avoid calling Parliament for money as much as possible.
Freedom of Speech: Limited, especially on sensitive topics like religion and succession.
Local Government:
Justices of the Peace (JPs): Gentry appointed as JPs to maintain law and order in counties, enforce laws, and administer local government. Increasingly important role.
Lord Lieutenants: Noblemen appointed to oversee military forces in counties.
Religious Settlement (1559): Elizabeth aimed for a compromise ('via media') between Catholicism and Protestantism to create religious stability.
Act of Supremacy: Elizabeth declared Supreme Governor of the Church of England (not Supreme Head, to appease Catholics).
Act of Uniformity: Established a common prayer book (Book of Common Prayer) and made Church attendance compulsory.
Thirty-Nine Articles: Defined the doctrines of the Church of England, broadly Protestant but with some Catholic elements.
Catholic Challenges:
Religious Divisions: Many Catholics remained loyal to the Pope and the Catholic faith.
Plots and Rebellions: Catholic plots to overthrow Elizabeth and replace her with Mary Queen of Scots (e.g., Ridolfi Plot, Babington Plot).
Jesuits and Seminary Priests: Sent from abroad to keep Catholicism alive in England and encourage rebellion.
Spanish Armada (1588): Partly a religious crusade to restore Catholicism in England.
Recusancy: Catholics who refused to attend Church of England services were fined.
Puritan Challenges:
Puritanism: Strict Protestants who wanted to 'purify' the Church of England of any remaining Catholic practices.
Desire for Simpler Church: Wanted simpler services, less decoration, and a greater emphasis on preaching and the Bible.
Presbyterianism: Some Puritans wanted to replace bishops with a system of elected presbyters (elders), challenging Elizabeth's authority as Supreme Governor.
Limited Puritan Opposition: Elizabeth successfully managed Puritan opposition, but tensions remained.
Aims of Elizabethan Foreign Policy:
National Security: Protect England from foreign invasion and threats.
Trade and Prosperity: Promote English trade and economic interests.
Balance of Power: Prevent any single European power from becoming too dominant.
Protestant Alliance: Support Protestant causes in Europe, particularly against Catholic powers like Spain.
Spain: England's main foreign rival.
Religious Differences: Catholic Spain vs. Protestant England.
Trade Rivalry: Competition for trade and colonies in the New World.
Spanish Netherlands: England supported Dutch Protestant rebels against Spanish rule.
Spanish Armada (1588): Spanish attempt to invade England, defeated by the English navy and weather. A major turning point, boosting English confidence and Protestant cause.
France: Another major European power, often rivals but sometimes allies against Spain.
Religious Wars in France: Elizabeth cautiously supported Protestant Huguenots in France to weaken the French monarchy and prevent Catholic dominance.
Netherlands: Dutch Revolt against Spanish rule. Elizabeth provided increasing support to the Dutch rebels, leading to war with Spain.
Ireland: English rule in Ireland was challenged by rebellions, often supported by Spain. Elizabethan government pursued a policy of greater control and colonization, leading to conflict and brutality (e.g., Nine Years' War).
Flourishing of Arts and Literature: The Elizabethan era is renowned for its cultural achievements.
William Shakespeare: Greatest English playwright and poet. Wrote tragedies, comedies, and histories that reflected Elizabethan society and ideas (e.g., Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth).
Christopher Marlowe: Another important playwright (Doctor Faustus, Tamburlaine).
Poetry: Sonnets and other forms of poetry were popular (e.g., Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney).
Theatre: Popular form of entertainment.
Public Theatres: The Globe, The Rose, The Theatre. Attracted large audiences from all social classes.
Patronage: Theatre companies were often patronized by nobles and even the Queen.
Themes: Plays explored a wide range of themes, including love, history, politics, and morality.
Music and Dance: Important part of Elizabethan life, both at court and among common people.
Courtly Music: Composers like William Byrd and John Dowland.
Popular Music: Folk songs, ballads, dances.
Sports and Pastimes:
Hunting and Hawking: Popular among the nobility.
Tennis: Played by the wealthy.
Bear-baiting and Cockfighting: Brutal but popular public entertainments.
Football (Mob Football): A chaotic and violent game played by commoners.
Fairs and Festivals: Important social events with games, entertainment, and trade.
Motivations for Exploration:
Trade and Wealth: Seeking new trade routes to Asia and new sources of wealth (spices, gold, silver).
National Glory: Desire to increase England's power and prestige.
Religious Zeal: Some saw exploration as a way to spread Protestantism.
Adventure and Curiosity: The spirit of the Renaissance and a desire to discover new lands.
Key Figures:
Sir Francis Drake: Circumnavigated the globe (1577-1580), raided Spanish ships and colonies. A national hero, but seen as a pirate by the Spanish.
Sir Walter Raleigh: Attempted to establish English colonies in North America (Roanoke), though these early attempts failed.
John Hawkins: Pioneering English naval commander and slave trader.
Early Colonization Attempts:
Roanoke Colony (Virginia): Raleigh's attempts to establish a colony in North America failed, the 'Lost Colony' of Roanoke remains a mystery.
Limited Success: English colonization efforts in this period were less successful than Spanish or Portuguese, but laid the groundwork for later expansion in the 17th century.
Economic Hardship:
Poor Harvests and Famine: Bad harvests in the 1590s led to food shortages and famine, increasing poverty and social unrest.
Continued Inflation: Inflation continued to erode living standards.
Recessions: Economic downturns in the cloth trade caused unemployment and hardship.
Social Unrest:
Increased Vagrancy and Poverty: Economic hardship led to increased vagrancy and social problems.
Food Riots: Outbreaks of rioting due to food shortages.
Social Inequality: Growing gap between the rich and poor, increasing social tensions.
Essex Rebellion (1601): Rebellion led by the Earl of Essex, a former favourite of Elizabeth, against her government. Easily suppressed, demonstrating the strength of the Elizabethan state, but also highlighting political tensions.
Succession Crisis:
Elizabeth's Age and Health: As Elizabeth aged, concerns grew about her succession as she had no direct heir.
Competing Claimants: Several potential claimants to the throne, including James VI of Scotland (Mary Queen of Scots' son).
Uncertainty and Anxiety: Succession was a major political issue, causing uncertainty and anxiety about the future of England.
James VI of Scotland: Elizabeth ultimately, tacitly, accepted James VI of Scotland as her successor, ensuring a peaceful transition in 1603.
Legacy of Elizabethan England: Despite the challenges of the late Elizabethan period, it is remembered as a 'Golden Age' for England.
Political Stability: Elizabeth successfully maintained stability and her authority for a long reign.
Religious Settlement: Established a lasting religious settlement, though tensions remained.
Cultural Achievements: Flourishing of arts and literature that had a lasting impact.
Foundation for Empire: Exploration and privateering laid the groundwork for future English overseas expansion.
End of an Era: Elizabeth's death in 1603 marked the end of the Tudor dynasty and the beginning of the Stuart era.