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The Elizabethans, 1580—1603 (OCR)
I. Introduction to Elizabethan England (1580-1603)
Context: This period covers the later reign of Queen Elizabeth I, often considered the 'Golden Age' of England. It was a time of significant social, economic, religious, and political change and challenges.
Key Themes:
Religious Tensions: Managing the religious settlement and challenges from Catholics and Puritans.
Political Stability: Maintaining Elizabeth's authority and dealing with plots and rebellions.
Economic Development: Growth in trade and exploration, but also economic problems like poverty and inflation.
Social Structure: Rigid social hierarchy and the lives of different social classes.
Culture and Arts: Flourishing of arts, literature, and theatre.
Foreign Policy: Navigating complex international relations, particularly with Spain and France, and dealing with war.
Succession: The ongoing issue of Elizabeth's lack of heir and the succession crisis.
II. Elizabethan Society
Social Hierarchy: A rigid and hierarchical structure determined by birth and wealth.
Monarch: Queen Elizabeth I at the top, holding ultimate power.
Nobility: Wealthy landowners (Dukes, Earls, Barons). Held high positions in government and society. Expected to advise the Queen and maintain order.
Gentry: Landowners below the nobility (Knights, Esquires, Gentlemen). Increasingly important in local administration and as Justices of the Peace (JPs).
Merchants: Wealthy traders and businessmen in towns and cities. Growing in wealth and influence.
Yeomen Farmers: Owned their own land, prosperous farmers.
Tenant Farmers: Rented land from landowners.
Labourers: Agricultural workers, often poor and vulnerable.
Urban Poor: Unemployed or underemployed in towns and cities, facing poverty and hardship.
Vagrants and Beggars: Homeless and destitute, seen as a social problem.
The Great Chain of Being: Belief in a divinely ordained social order, with everyone having a fixed place in society. Challenging this order was seen as challenging God's will.
Role of Women:
Limited Legal and Social Rights: Subordinate to men, especially fathers and husbands.
Domestic Sphere: Expected to manage the household, raise children, and be obedient wives.
Queen Elizabeth I: An exception, a powerful female ruler, but her gender was often commented upon and sometimes seen as a weakness by contemporaries.
Variations by Social Class: Noblewomen had more influence than common women, but still operated within constraints.
III. Elizabethan Economy
Economic Growth: Expansion of trade, particularly in cloth, and exploration led to increased wealth for some.
Trade and Exploration:
Cloth Trade: Dominant industry, exporting woollen cloth to Europe.
New Trade Routes: Seeking new markets and goods in Asia and the Americas.
Merchant Adventurers and East India Company: Joint-stock companies established to promote trade and exploration.
Privateering: English ships, like those of Francis Drake, attacking Spanish ships and colonies for profit and to weaken Spain.
Economic Problems:
Inflation: Rising prices due to population growth, debasement of coinage by previous monarchs, and influx of silver from the New World. Reduced living standards, especially for the poor.
Poverty: Significant poverty, particularly in towns and rural areas. Enclosure movement contributed to rural unemployment and vagrancy.
Poor Laws: Government attempted to address poverty through Poor Laws, distinguishing between the 'deserving' and 'undeserving' poor.
Enclosure: Fencing off common land for sheep farming, displacing farmers and labourers and leading to social unrest.
IV. Elizabethan Government and Politics
Elizabeth's Power: A strong and assertive monarch, but ruled by consent and within the framework of the constitution.
Royal Prerogative: Areas of power Elizabeth controlled directly, such as foreign policy, declaring war, and the succession.
Patronage: Elizabeth controlled appointments and favours, using patronage to reward loyalty and maintain control over the nobility.
Propaganda and Image: Cultivated a powerful image as the 'Virgin Queen', wise and dedicated to her country.
Privy Council: Elizabeth's key advisors, responsible for day-to-day government, law and order, and implementing policy.
Key Councillors: William Cecil (Lord Burghley), Francis Walsingham, Robert Dudley (Earl of Leicester), Robert Cecil.
Managing Factions: Elizabeth skillfully managed different factions within the Council to maintain her own power.
Parliament: Composed of the House of Lords (nobility and bishops) and the House of Commons (elected gentry and merchants).
Limited Power: Parliament could advise the monarch and pass laws (Acts of Parliament), but Elizabeth could veto legislation.
Taxation: Parliament's main power was to grant taxes to the monarch. Elizabeth tried to avoid calling Parliament for money as much as possible.
Freedom of Speech: Limited, especially on sensitive topics like religion and succession.
Local Government:
Justices of the Peace (JPs): Gentry appointed as JPs to maintain law and order in counties, enforce laws, and administer local government. Increasingly important role.
Lord Lieutenants: Noblemen appointed to oversee military forces in counties.
V. Religion in Elizabethan England
Religious Settlement (1559): Elizabeth aimed for a compromise ('via media') between Catholicism and Protestantism to create religious stability.
Act of Supremacy: Elizabeth declared Supreme Governor of the Church of England (not Supreme Head, to appease Catholics).
Act of Uniformity: Established a common prayer book (Book of Common Prayer) and made Church attendance compulsory.
Thirty-Nine Articles: Defined the doctrines of the Church of England, broadly Protestant but with some Catholic elements.
Catholic Challenges:
Religious Divisions: Many Catholics remained loyal to the Pope and the Catholic faith.
Plots and Rebellions: Catholic plots to overthrow Elizabeth and replace her with Mary Queen of Scots (e.g., Ridolfi Plot, Babington Plot).
Jesuits and Seminary Priests: Sent from abroad to keep Catholicism alive in England and encourage rebellion.
Spanish Armada (1588): Partly a religious crusade to restore Catholicism in England.
Recusancy: Catholics who refused to attend Church of England services were fined.
Puritan Challenges:
Puritanism: Strict Protestants who wanted to 'purify' the Church of England of any remaining Catholic practices.
Desire for Simpler Church: Wanted simpler services, less decoration, and a greater emphasis on preaching and the Bible.
Presbyterianism: Some Puritans wanted to replace bishops with a system of elected presbyters (elders), challenging Elizabeth's authority as Supreme Governor.
Limited Puritan Opposition: Elizabeth successfully managed Puritan opposition, but tensions remained.
VI. Foreign Policy and Warfare
Aims of Elizabethan Foreign Policy:
National Security: Protect England from foreign invasion and threats.
Trade and Prosperity: Promote English trade and economic interests.
Balance of Power: Prevent any single European power from becoming too dominant.
Protestant Alliance: Support Protestant causes in Europe, particularly against Catholic powers like Spain.
Spain: England's main foreign rival.
Religious Differences: Catholic Spain vs. Protestant England.
Trade Rivalry: Competition for trade and colonies in the New World.
Spanish Netherlands: England supported Dutch Protestant rebels against Spanish rule.
Spanish Armada (1588): Spanish attempt to invade England, defeated by the English navy and weather. A major turning point, boosting English confidence and Protestant cause.
France: Another major European power, often rivals but sometimes allies against Spain.
Religious Wars in France: Elizabeth cautiously supported Protestant Huguenots in France to weaken the French monarchy and prevent Catholic dominance.
Netherlands: Dutch Revolt against Spanish rule. Elizabeth provided increasing support to the Dutch rebels, leading to war with Spain.
Ireland: English rule in Ireland was challenged by rebellions, often supported by Spain. Elizabethan government pursued a policy of greater control and colonization, leading to conflict and brutality (e.g., Nine Years' War).
VII. Elizabethan Culture and Leisure
Flourishing of Arts and Literature: The Elizabethan era is renowned for its cultural achievements.
William Shakespeare: Greatest English playwright and poet. Wrote tragedies, comedies, and histories that reflected Elizabethan society and ideas (e.g., Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth).
Christopher Marlowe: Another important playwright (Doctor Faustus, Tamburlaine).
Poetry: Sonnets and other forms of poetry were popular (e.g., Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney).
Theatre: Popular form of entertainment.
Public Theatres: The Globe, The Rose, The Theatre. Attracted large audiences from all social classes.
Patronage: Theatre companies were often patronized by nobles and even the Queen.
Themes: Plays explored a wide range of themes, including love, history, politics, and morality.
Music and Dance: Important part of Elizabethan life, both at court and among common people.
Courtly Music: Composers like William Byrd and John Dowland.
Popular Music: Folk songs, ballads, dances.
Sports and Pastimes:
Hunting and Hawking: Popular among the nobility.
Tennis: Played by the wealthy.
Bear-baiting and Cockfighting: Brutal but popular public entertainments.
Football (Mob Football): A chaotic and violent game played by commoners.
Fairs and Festivals: Important social events with games, entertainment, and trade.
VIII. Exploration and Expansion
Motivations for Exploration:
Trade and Wealth: Seeking new trade routes to Asia and new sources of wealth (spices, gold, silver).
National Glory: Desire to increase England's power and prestige.
Religious Zeal: Some saw exploration as a way to spread Protestantism.
Adventure and Curiosity: The spirit of the Renaissance and a desire to discover new lands.
Key Figures:
Sir Francis Drake: Circumnavigated the globe (1577-1580), raided Spanish ships and colonies. A national hero, but seen as a pirate by the Spanish.
Sir Walter Raleigh: Attempted to establish English colonies in North America (Roanoke), though these early attempts failed.
John Hawkins: Pioneering English naval commander and slave trader.
Early Colonization Attempts:
Roanoke Colony (Virginia): Raleigh's attempts to establish a colony in North America failed, the 'Lost Colony' of Roanoke remains a mystery.
Limited Success: English colonization efforts in this period were less successful than Spanish or Portuguese, but laid the groundwork for later expansion in the 17th century.
IX. Challenges and Problems in Late Elizabethan England (1590s-1603)
Economic Hardship:
Poor Harvests and Famine: Bad harvests in the 1590s led to food shortages and famine, increasing poverty and social unrest.
Continued Inflation: Inflation continued to erode living standards.
Recessions: Economic downturns in the cloth trade caused unemployment and hardship.
Social Unrest:
Increased Vagrancy and Poverty: Economic hardship led to increased vagrancy and social problems.
Food Riots: Outbreaks of rioting due to food shortages.
Social Inequality: Growing gap between the rich and poor, increasing social tensions.
Essex Rebellion (1601): Rebellion led by the Earl of Essex, a former favourite of Elizabeth, against her government. Easily suppressed, demonstrating the strength of the Elizabethan state, but also highlighting political tensions.
Succession Crisis:
Elizabeth's Age and Health: As Elizabeth aged, concerns grew about her succession as she had no direct heir.
Competing Claimants: Several potential claimants to the throne, including James VI of Scotland (Mary Queen of Scots' son).
Uncertainty and Anxiety: Succession was a major political issue, causing uncertainty and anxiety about the future of England.
James VI of Scotland: Elizabeth ultimately, tacitly, accepted James VI of Scotland as her successor, ensuring a peaceful transition in 1603.
X. Conclusion
Legacy of Elizabethan England: Despite the challenges of the late Elizabethan period, it is remembered as a 'Golden Age' for England.
Political Stability: Elizabeth successfully maintained stability and her authority for a long reign.
Religious Settlement: Established a lasting religious settlement, though tensions remained.
Cultural Achievements: Flourishing of arts and literature that had a lasting impact.
Foundation for Empire: Exploration and privateering laid the groundwork for future English overseas expansion.
End of an Era: Elizabeth's death in 1603 marked the end of the Tudor dynasty and the beginning of the Stuart era.