Unit 1.2: Developments in Dar al-Islam

Islamic States and the Shaping of Society (c. 1200 - c. 1450)

• Essential Question: How did Islamic states arise, and how did major religious systems shape society in the period from c. 1200 to c. 1450?
• Following the death of Muhammad in 632, Islam experienced rapid expansion from Arabia through military actions, trade, and missionary work, extending its influence from India to Spain.
• Many Islamic leaders demonstrated tolerance towards Christians, Jews, and others who believed in a single god.
• Under the Abbasid Empire, Baghdad became a renowned center of learning known as the House of Wisdom, attracting scholars from distant lands.
• The Islamic community played a crucial role in transferring knowledge throughout Afro-Eurasia.
• The Abbasids eventually declined and were succeeded by other Islamic states.

Invasions and Shifts in Trade Routes

• The Abbasid Empire faced challenges in the 1100s and 1200s, including conflicts with nomadic groups in Central Asia and European invaders.
• Egyptian Mamluks
  • Arabs frequently purchased enslaved people, or Mamluks, primarily ethnic Turks from Central Asia, to serve as soldiers and bureaucrats.
  • Mamluks had more opportunities for advancement compared to most enslaved people due to their roles.
  • In Egypt, Mamluks seized control of the government, establishing the Mamluk Sultanate (1250-1517).
  • They prospered by facilitating trade in cotton and sugar between the Islamic world and Europe.
  • The Mamluks declined in power when the Portuguese and other Europeans developed new sea routes for trade.
• Seljuk Turks
  • The Central Asian Seljuk Turks, who were also Muslims, posed another challenge to the Abbasids.
  • They began conquering parts of the Middle East in the 11th century, extending their power almost as far east as Western China.
  • The Seljuk leader assumed the title of sultan, diminishing the Abbasid caliph's role to that of chief Sunni religious authority.

Crusaders

• The Abbasids initially allowed Christians to travel freely to their holy sites in and around Jerusalem.
• The Seljuk Turks later restricted this travel, prompting European Christians to organize groups of soldiers, called Crusaders, to reopen access.

Mongols

• The Mongols, originating from Central Asia, were the fourth group to attack the Abbasid Empire.
• In 1258, the Mongols conquered the remaining Abbasid Empire, ending Seljuk rule.
• They continued westward but were halted in Egypt by the Mamluks.

Economic Competition

• The Abbasids had been a vital link connecting Asia, Europe, and North Africa since the 8th century, controlling trade routes through Baghdad.
• Trade patterns gradually shifted to routes farther north, causing Baghdad to lose its central trade position, wealth, and population.
• The city's infrastructure deteriorated due to the inability to maintain canals, leading to insufficient food production for the urban population.

Cultural and Social Life

• The Islamic world eventually fragmented politically, with new states adopting Abbasid practices but maintaining distinct ethnic identities.
• The Abbasid Caliphate was led by Arabs and Persians, while later Islamic states were shaped by Turkic peoples from Central Asia.
• Examples of Turkic-influenced states include the Mamluks in North Africa, the Seljuks in the Middle East, and the Delhi Sultanate in South Asia.
• By the 16th century, three large Islamic states with roots in Turkic cultures emerged: the Ottoman Empire in Turkey, the Safavid Empire in Persia, and the Mughal Empire in India.
• Despite political fragmentation, these Islamic states continued to form a cultural region through trade, the spread of ideas, and the common use of shariah, which created similar legal systems.
• Great universities in Baghdad, Córdoba, Cairo, and Bukhara served as centers for sharing intellectual innovations.

Cultural Continuities

• Islamic scholars followed Muhammad's advice to seek knowledge from various cultures.
• They preserved Greek literary classics by translating them into Arabic, saving the works of Aristotle and other Greek thinkers.
• They studied mathematics texts from India and transferred the knowledge to Europeans.
• They adopted paper-making techniques from China, which facilitated the spread of paper production in Europe.

Cultural Innovations

• During the