PSYC 513/703 Lecture Notes

False Memories

• Autobiographical Memory: Memories of one's own life experiences.

• Recollection Errors: Mistakes made when remembering past events.

Varieties of Episodic Memory

• Familiarity: A feeling of recognition without specific details.

• Recollection: Recall of specific episodic details or associations.

False Familiarity

A feeling that you've done or experienced something before, such as déjà vu.

Remembering the Past

• Remembering the past is usually about recalling details.

Autobiographical Memories

• Autobiographical Memories are like real life.

• "You can know a lot of things without mental time travel, but you can't remember events from your past, or anticipate your future, without it." - Endel Tulving

• Many theorists define autobiographical memory as “reliving” the original experience.

Sensory Details in Autobiographical Memories

• For most people, sensory details play a large role in Autobiographical Memories.

• Our ability to bring to mind these details contribute to the experience of recollection.

• We trust recollection because they offer more “evidence” of the past than a mere feeling of familiarity.

Can we trust recollection?

Accuracy of Recollection

• Accuracy of recollection is not what we think.

• Nickerson & Adams (1979): Attempts at drawing a US penny (coin) - only 1 in 6 could identify the correct version.

Recollection as Reconstruction

• Recollection is not simply retrieval; it is reconstruction.

• Memory is often fragmented and incomplete.

• We put together the pieces in ways that make sense and fill in the missing information.

• The reconstructive process leads to a subjectively “realistic” and “complete” experience of the past.

• This experience feels real, but it may not be accurate.

Everyday False Recollection

• Example: Misremembering when an event occurred (e.g., confusing last week with last month).

False Recollection

• False Recollection: Inaccurate reconstruction of a past event.

  • Source monitoring errors.

  • Influence of post-event information.

  • Beliefs and stereotypes.

Source Monitoring Errors

• Source Monitoring: Placing a memory in its proper context.

• False recollection can be source monitoring errors.

• Mistake or confusion about context, place, time, etc.

• Example: Confusing what you ate for lunch on different days of the week.

Likelihood of Source Monitoring Errors

• Errors are more likely to happen when potential sources are similar.

  • More likely: Confusing who wore a red shirt between two similar-looking girls.

  • Less likely: Confusing who wore a red shirt between a girl and a gorilla.

Levy-Gigi & Vakil (2014) Study

• Studied two stories, each containing 15 different critical objects.

• Perceptual match of Story 2 to Story 1 was similar or dissimilar.

  • Story 1: “House” (e.g., “There was a jeans jacket hanging on the wall”)

  • Story 2: “Office” (Similar) or different context (Dissimilar).

• Higher false recognition in similar compared to dissimilar source.

Results of Levy-Gigi & Vakil (2014) Study

• Higher false recognition in similar compared to dissimilar source.

• Percentage: false: recognition: \frac{Similar}{0.30} \frac{Dissimilar}{0.20}

Post-Event Information

Lindsay, Allen, Chan, Dahl (2004) Study

• Participants saw an illustrated story of a man searching a house for a gold coin.

• Later read another story about the same man searching the house, but the 2nd story contained objects not seen in the 1st story.

Results of Lindsay, Allen, Chan, Dahl (2004) Study

• % false recall = recall seeing objects in the 1st story that were only mentioned in 2nd story

• Evidence for post-event information influencing memory: objects mentioned only in the 2nd story (the post-event information) falsely recalled as shown in the initial slides.

• Percentage: false: recall: \frac{2nd: story: only}{0.15} \frac{control: object}{0.10}

• In another condition, participants read a post-event narrative unrelated to the first story.

• Misleading post-event narrative:

  • (similar) Described same man searching for gold coin

  • (dissimilar) Described girl cleaning different house

• Higher false recall in similar compared to dissimilar source.

• Percentage: false: recall: \frac{similar}{0.15} \frac{dissimilar}{0.10}

Influence of Post-event Information

• Information encountered after an event can influence (or distort) memory for that event.

• This could be due to source monitoring errors.

Beliefs and Stereotypes

Allport & Postman (1947) Study

• Described scene to another person (who described scene to another, etc.).

• Half of the people at the end of the chain described a Black man as holding a razor.

Reconstructing Details with Stereotypes

• Stereotypes, beliefs, and expectations can encourage false elaboration or recollection of false details.

Ganske & Helb (2001) Study

• (Sylvia/John) received a letter in the mail notifying him/her that he/she had lost the Texas State Achievement in Math Competition.

• Story continued with gender-neutral details.

Results of Ganske & Helb (2001) Study

• Recall by 3rd person:

  • Sylvia’s Story: 54% had false recall of female-stereotypic actions.

  • John’s Story: 44% had false recall of male-stereotypic actions.

Reconstructing Details – Likelihood of Inferences

• Inferences are more likely when memory is degraded (e.g., due to the passage of time) or when time and attention are in short supply.

Sherman & Bessenoff (1999) Study

• Studied two lists of behaviors:

  • List 1: Created by Experimenter.

  • List 2: Self-descriptive behaviors created by either a Skinhead (negative stereotype) or a Priest (positive stereotype).

• Example behaviors:

  • Neutral: Bought a new shirt.

  • Negative: Shoved his way to seat in cinema.

  • Positive: Gave a stranger money.

Results of Sherman & Bessenoff (1999) Study

• Source Misattributions influenced by consistency with stereotype (skinhead - negative) (priest - positive):

  • Behaviors consistent with the stereotype of a source were more likely to be misattributed to that source, especially when the memory task was concurrent with a secondary task.
    Percentage Attribute to wrong Source
    Only in condition where memory task concurrent with secondary task

Kleider, Pezdek, Goldinger, Kirk (2008) Study

• "Housewife" & "Handyman” performed various activities consistent or inconsistent with stereotype.

Results of Kleider, Pezdek, Goldinger, Kirk (2008) Study

• Memory test immediate or after 48-hour delay.

• Stereotype-consistent inferences increase over time.

• Behaviors inconsistent with the stereotype of a source were more likely to be forgotten with that source.

• Percentage: fail: to: remember: source

• Behaviours inconsistent with stereotype of a source more likely to be forgotten with that source

Source Monitoring Errors and Beliefs

• Source Monitoring Errors are more likely to happen when they conform with beliefs and expectations.

Post-Event Information and Inference

• Our beliefs in the present shape our memory of the past.

Snyder & Uranowitz (1978) Study

• Read a case history of “Betty K” describing the events and people in her life from birth through university.

• Later told either: (Lesbian label) or (Heterosexual label).

Results of Snyder & Uranowitz (1978) Study

• Week later, given a memory test with items relevant to stereotypes associated with lesbian or heterosexual label.

• Depending on label, selectively remembered (or misremembered) details consistent with stereotypes.

• Later learning about her implied sexuality influenced how people remembered (or misremembered) details of Betty’s life.

• (Lesbian consistent) Never had a steady boyfriend in high school or Never dated men.

• (Heterosexual consistent) Had a steady boyfriend in high school or Often dated men.

False Recollection: Contributing Factors

• False Recollection (inaccurate reconstruction of a past event):

  • Source monitoring errors

  • Influence of post-event information

  • Beliefs and stereotypes

Hillary Clinton Example Revisited

• Hillary Clinton (2008) recalls visit to Tuzla, Bosnia 12 years earlier, remembering landing under sniper fire, which was later contradicted.

• Potential explanations:

  • Source monitoring errors: Confused similar experiences.

  • Influence of post-event information: Incorporated details from other stories.

  • Beliefs and stereotypes: Remembering the past in ways consistent with current beliefs.

Role of Imagery in False Memories

• Realistic False Memories.

Sensory Details and Recollection

• For most people, sensory details play a large role in Autobiographical Memories.

• Our ability to bring to mind these details contribute to the experience of recollection.

• We trust recollection because they offer more “evidence” of the past than a mere feeling of familiarity.

• How do we know that a memory is real?

• It’s associated with realistic imagery and details.

Horselenberg et al (2000) Study

• Life Event Inventory (LEI):

  • Did these things happen to you as a child?

    • “Broke a window with my hand”

    • “Found a silver ring”

• Rate confidence that this event happened to you.

• After completing LEI, imagery task.

Horselenberg et al (2000) Study Imagery Task:

• You’re playing outside. Your mother just told you that dinner will be ready soon.

• With whom are you playing? Is it evening?

• As you are playing outside, your attention is attracted by a glistening object lying on the ground.

• You pick it up. It’s a beautiful silver ring.

Imagination and False Recollection

• Imagination:

  • creates a memory of the imagined event.

  • incorporates imagery and detail into the memory, making it feel realistic.

  • memories of imagined events mistaken for actually experienced events (source monitoring errors).

False Autobiographical Memories

• Imagination and source monitoring errors can lead to realistic and complex false memories.

Wade, Garry, Read, Lindsay (2002) Study

• Relatives provided photograph of subject as child.

• Doctored photograph created of balloon ride (subject never rode balloon).

• Study about childhood reminiscence “tell me everything you can remember”

• Three interviews (3-7 days apart)

• During interviews, used guided imagery to help remember: “close eyes, picture being in the hot air balloon”

Results of Wade, Garry, Read, Lindsay (2002) Study

• False recollection increased over time.

  *Picture is “proof” to encourage acceptance and belief “the doctored photograph was accepted as authoritative evidence that the false event had occurred and in doing so, planted the seed of a false memory.” “lowering subjects’ criteria for accepting feelings, thoughts, and images as memories will increase the rate of false recall.” *

• doctored photo is a starting point

• guided imagery instructions creates additional new memories that are realistic

• “Most of the details that the subjects reported were not explicitly depicted in the photograph: The majority of detail originated from guided- imagery exercises, imagination, and real life events.”

Wade, Garry, Read, Lindsay (2002) Study: Memory Misattribution

• new memories are misattributed to childhood event

• repeatedly thinking about and imagining event creates more new memories, adds more details to these memories, strengthens these memories

• “suggested” event can take qualities of real memory through imagination, repetition, elaboration

Examples from Wade, Garry, Read, Lindsay (2002) Study

• Illustrating the process of developing false memories through repeated interviews and guided imagery.

Creating False Memories Through Imagination

• Imagined or Suggested events can take on the qualities of real memories through elaboration and repetition.

• False memories can be autobiographical and fairly complex, involving spontaneously produced details.

Limits of False Memory Creation

• Can you only create false memories of the distant past?

• Memory reconstruction more likely when memory is degraded or inaccessible…

Nash, Wade, Lindsay (2009) Study

• Session 1:

  • Subject watched RA perform action, subject copied action.

  • Recorded on video.

  • RA later performed actions alone.

  • Doctored video of subject watching RA actions that RA performed alone.

• Session 2:

  • Subject watched doctored video, or imagined performing the action on the video, or both.

Results of Nash, Wade, Lindsay (2009) Study

• False memories can be created for personal, recent events.

Creating False Memories: Summary

• Imagined or Suggested events can take on the qualities of real memories through elaboration and repetition.

• False memories can be autobiographical and fairly complex, involving spontaneously produced details.

• False memories can be created for personal, recent events.

Do False Memories Matter?

Bernstein, Laney, Morris, Loftus (2005) Study

• Session 1 Food History Inventory (FHI):

  • Got sick after eating strawberry ice cream How confident are you that this happened?

• Session 2 Based on earlier responses in FHI,

  • “computer generated profile” about childhood eating history.

  • Some given false feedback: “Got sick after eating strawberry ice cream”

  • Prompted to remember this event. If can’t remember, imagine what it must have been like. “Where did it occur? What were you doing at the time?”

Results of Bernstein, Laney, Morris, Loftus (2005) Study

• “Got sick after eating strawberry ice cream”

• After memory prompts, complete FHI again.

• False feedback group more likely in to increase confidence that this event occurred.

• Participants who increased belief in the false feedback rated lower preference for strawberry ice cream.

Details in False Memories

• “Got sick after eating strawberry ice cream”

• False memory or just belief?

• When asked to give details about event:

  • Tummy ache from too much ice cream.

  • May have gotten sick from eating seven cups of ice cream.

  • There wasn’t any other flavor, had to eat strawberry and didn’t like the taste.

Summary of Lecture 4 Topics

• Recollection is a reconstruction of the past

• Contributing factors to false memories:

  • source monitoring errors

  • post-event information

  • beliefs and stereotypes

• Role of imagination, imagery and repetition in the creation of false autobiographical memories