speech
COMMUNICATION: The process of generating meaning by sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts.
Ancient Greek philosophers and scholars such as Aristotle theorized about the art of rhetoric, which refers to speaking well and persuasively.
Today, we hear the word rhetoric used in negative ways. A politician, for example, may write off his or her opponent’s statements as “just rhetoric.” This leads us to believe that rhetoric refers to misleading, false, or unethical communication, which is not at all in keeping with the usage of the word by ancient or contemporary communication experts.
The study of rhetoric focused on public communication, primarily oratory used in discussions or debates regarding laws and policy, speeches delivered in courts, and speeches intended to praise or blame another person.
Cicero contributed to the field of rhetoric by expanding theories regarding the five canons of rhetoric, which include invention, arrangement, style, delivery, and memory.
Invention refers to the use of evidence and arguments to think about things in new ways and is the most studied of the five canons.
Arrangement refers to the organization of speech
style refers to the use of language
delivery refers to the vocal and physical characteristics of a speaker.
Memory is the least studied of the five canons and refers to the techniques employed by speakers of that era to retain and then repeat large amounts of information.
In the early 1900s, professors with training and expertise in communication were often housed in rhetoric or English departments and were sometimes called “professors of speech.”
In 1914, a group of ten speech teachers who were members of the National Council of Teachers of English broke off from the organization and started the National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking, which eventually evolved into today’s National Communication Association.
James A. Winans, one of the first modern speech teachers and an advocate for teaching communication in higher education, said there were “two motives for learning to speak. Increasing one’s chance to succeed and increasing one’s power to serve”
Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself using internal vocalization or reflective thinking. We also use intrapersonal communication or “self-talk” to let off steam, process emotions, think through something, or rehearse what we plan to say or do in the future.
Of the forms of communication, intrapersonal communication has received the least amount of formal study.
Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another. Interpersonal communication builds, maintains, and ends our relationships, and we spend more time engaged in interpersonal communication than the other forms of communication.
Interpersonal communication occurs in various contexts and is addressed in subfields of study within communication studies such as intercultural communication, organizational communication, health communication, and computer-mediated communication. After all, interpersonal relationships exist in all those contexts. In terms of instrumental needs, the goal may be as minor as greeting someone to fulfill a morning ritual or as major as conveying your desire to be in a committed relationship with someone.
Group communication is communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal.
Public communication is a sender-focused form of communication in which one person is typically responsible for conveying information to an audience
Public communication becomes mass communication when it is transmitted to many people through print or electronic media. Print media such as newspapers and magazines, television, websites, blogs, and social media are mass communication channels that you probably engage with regularly. Radio, podcasts, and books are other examples of mass media.
In communication models, the participants are the senders and/or receivers of messages in a communication encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal content being conveyed from sender to receiver. For example, when you say “Hello!” to your friend, you are sending a message of greeting that will be received by your friend.
Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication.
Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts. For example, you may realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?” As your roommate receives the message, he decodes your communication and turns it back into thoughts in order to make meaning out of it.
Encoded messages are sent through a channel, or a sensory route on which a message travels, to the receiver for decoding.
The transmission model of communication describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver
Noise is anything that interferes with a message being sent between participants in a communication encounter
Environmental noise is any physical noise present in a communication encounter. Other people talking in a crowded diner could interfere with your ability to transmit a message and have it successfully decoded
While environmental noise interferes with the transmission of the message, semantic noise refers to noise that occurs in the encoding and decoding process when participants do not understand a symbol.
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is any type of communication that takes place between two or more people using electronic devices, such as computers or smartphones
The interaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts
Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages. For example, your instructor may respond to a point you raise during class discussion
Physical context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout, temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication.
Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication
The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities.
Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators. For example, on a first date, as you send verbal messages about your interests and background, your date reacts nonverbally.
Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. For example, as a new employee you may over- or underdress for the company’s holiday party because you don’t know the norm for formality
Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus someone we’ve known for a long time.
Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability.
integrative learning, which encourages students to reflect on how the content they are learning connects to other classes they have taken or are taking, their professional goals, and their civic responsibilities.
Academic, professional,personal, civic
Physical needs include needs that keep our bodies and minds functioning. Communication, which we most often associate with our brain, mouth, eyes, and ears, actually has many more connections to and effects on our physical body and well-being.
Instrumental needs include needs that help us get things done in our day-to-day lives and achieve short- and long-term goals.
Compliance gaining and communicating for instrumental needs is different from coercion, which forces or manipulates people into doing what you want.
Common Tactics Used for Compliance Gaining
Offering rewards. Seeks compliance in a positive way, by promising returns, rewards, or generally positive outcomes.
Threatening punishment. Seeks compliance in a negative way, by threatening negative consequences such as loss of privileges, grounding, or legal action.
Using expertise. Seeks compliance by implying that one person “knows better” than the other based on experience, age, education, or intelligence.
Liking. Seeks compliance by acting friendly and helpful to get the other person into a good mood before asking them to do something.
Debt. Seeks compliance by calling in past favors and indicating that one person “owes” the other.
Altruism. Seeks compliance by claiming that one person only wants “what is best” for the other and he or she is looking out for the other person’s “best interests.”
Esteem. Seeks compliance by claiming that other people will think more highly of the person if he or she complies or think less of the person if he or she does not comply.
Relational needs include needs that help us maintain social bonds and interpersonal relationships. Communication meets our relational needs by giving us a tool through which to develop, maintain, and end relationships.
Identity needs include our need to present ourselves to others and be thought of in particular and desired ways. What adjectives would you use to describe yourself? Are you funny, smart, loyal, or quirky?
Communication is a process that involves an interchange of verbal and/or nonverbal messages within a continuous and dynamic sequence of events
Phatic communion refers to scripted and routine verbal interactions that are intended to establish social bonds rather than actually exchange meaning. When you pass your professor in the hall, the exchange may go as follows:
Student:
“Hey, how are you?”
Professor:
“Fine, how are you?”
Student:
“Fine.”
The term phatic communion derives from the Greek word phatos, which means “spoken,”
the word communion, which means “connection or bond.”
Communication ethics deals with the process of negotiating and reflecting on our actions and communication regarding what we believe to be right and wrong.
Here are some examples of ethical communication:
Treating people fairly
Avoiding harmful behavior
Sharing information from reputable sources
Understanding the information being presented
Citing sources verbally
Distinguishing facts from speculation
Avoiding offensive language and sensitive content
Keeping the audience's best interest in mind
communication competence refers to the knowledge of effective and appropriate communication patterns and the ability to use and adapt that knowledge in various contexts. A person with high communication competence can navigate different social situations effectively, adapting their communication style as needed to achieve successful and meaningful interactions.
The Four Stages of Competence:
unconscious incompetence, which means you are not even aware that you are communicating in an incompetent manner.
Once you learn more about communication and have a vocabulary to identify concepts, you may find yourself exhibiting conscious incompetence. This is where you know what you should be doing, and you realize that you’re not doing it as well as you could.
conscious competence, meaning that you know you are communicating well in the moment, which will add to your bank of experiences to draw from in future interactions.
unconscious competence, you just communicate successfully without straining to be competent. The skill becomes second nature. You can perform it effortlessly without needing to think about it.
A mindful communicator actively and fluidly processes information, is sensitive to communication contexts and multiple perspectives, and is able to adapt to novel communication situations
Communication apprehension (CA) is fear or anxiety experienced by a person due to actual or imagined communication with another person or persons
Public speaking anxiety is type of CA that produces physiological, cognitive, and behavioral reactions in people when faced with a real or imagined presentation
Research on public speaking anxiety has focused on three key ways to address this common issue: systematic desensitization, cognitive restructuring, and skills training