What is philosophy - philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, logic, values and reason, the mind and language. The word philosophy comes from two greek words: philein, which means to love, and sofia which means wisdom. Anthony Quinton wrote that philosophy is “thinking about thinking”. Philosophy shows a commitment to being open-minded and a search for truth. 

Origins of philosophy - there is an argument about  where philosophy originated. Some believe that it came from ancient egypt, asia, or ancient greece. It’s generally agreed that western ideas of philosophy originated from athens in 5th century BCE

Nature and aims of philosophy - in this forum, philosophy amounted to a willingness to pursue an argument to its conclusion, challenging it at every stage and seeing it as open to refutation

The philosopher’s approach - key to the philosopher’s approach is autonomy. Beyond understanding concepts, philosophers seek to understand what exists and the nature of existence, they reject anyone’s word that a thing is a certain way. Searching for meaning, not just explanations and observations. Practicing autonomy through, where people can freely make rational decisions. The philosopher’s approach involves a double commitment: firstly, to the truth, rejecting what could be false, and to moral values like honesty, openness, and impartiality

Skills philosophers need in the search for knowledge - language, definitions and clarity, critical thinking, and reading philosophy

First order language - more direct, is it wrong to day drink

Seconder order language - going deeper into the first order question. What does it mean to say day drinking is right or wrong? What does right even mean?

6 major areas of philosophy - logic, metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, social/political philosophy

Logic - coming from greek word logos, the study or formal reasoning. Trying to differentiate between right and wrong or true and false through correct reasoning. Exposing faulty arguments and examining assumptions

Metaphysics - study of the basic structures of reality. Considered by many philosophers to be the ‘first philosophy”. 

Epistemology - study of knowledge and is worthy of belief by a rational person. Questioning what it means to know, how much we can trust our senses, and how/if we can be certain of what we know

Ethics - comes from the greek word ethos, meaning character. Often seen as synonymous with morals and can be defined as “moral philosophy” study what good/bad character traits are. 

Aesthetics - philosophy of art and beauty. Tries to explain how people perceive and assess the meaning, purpose, and impression of art/beauty

Social and political philosophy - asks questions of how society should be organized to meet people’s needs. 

The socratic method - cooperative dialogue created by socrates to stimulate critical thinking. poses a question about a complex issue or a commonly held belief, the response is scrutinized through further questioning. Process continues with rounds of questioning until a more precise definition or deeper insight comes along. 

Three main questions about human nature - are we altrusists or egoists? Are we good or evil? Do we desire knowledge or comfortable ignorance?

Altruist - will care for and help others even when it doesn’t benefit them

Egoist - person who cares only for their needs and what will benefit them

Hobbes on human nature - wrote in his book Leviathan the self-interest/egoism is human nature. We are inherently greedy and aggressive. We are naturally antisocial and cooperation/socialization is solely used to better one’s position. 

John Stuart Mill on human nature - countered Hobbes’s idea of human nature. Believed that while humans have a degree of self interest, he focused on the idea of kindness and benevolence within us. 

Aristotle on the desire to know - aristotle recognized the link between humans and animals. He called humans “rational/civilized animals”. To him we were animals capable of acquiring knowledge. We are unique because we pursue both knowledge and happiness, which are mutually supportive. 

John Stuart Mill on the desire to know - Mill argued that humans desire knowledge above all else and no one would prefer ignorant bliss over informed normality. 

The Good Brahman - philosophical short story by french philosopher Voltaire. Brahman is wise and knowledgeable but deeply unhappy. He lives next to an old lady who is ignorant and stupid but happy. Brahman still decides that he’d rather be himself, wise and unhappy. 

The experience machine  - thought experiment proposed by Robert Nozick. There is a machine that can provide any pleasurable or desirable experience you want. Once you are plugged in  you won’t know that this life is artificial, and you abandon your real life experiences. 

Socrates on good/evil human nature - socrates says that people don’t choose to do evil. “To know good is to do good”. 

Mengzi on good/evil human nature - said that people are naturally good and that the urge to conform is human nature. He also thought that if we don’t cultivate ourselves we can turn into bad people. 

Hsun Tzu on good/evil human nature - said that people were naturally evil, but also stressed that education can help humans control our natural evil tendencies. Desire to do good cannot be a motivator. We desire to do good due to our evil nature

Essentialists on human nature - things have a set of characteristics that define them. These qualities precede and coninicde with its existence and are necessary to the thing’s identity

Plato’s essentialist view on human nature - felt that reason is the necessary and defining part of humans

Plato’s tripartite theory of the soul - there are three elements of the soul. Spirit (as expressed through emotions and characteristics), appetite (base primal urges), and reason. Reason is the dominant trait because it balances conflict between the two other elements. Could of been the basis for freud’s iceberg and maslow’s hierarchy of needs. 

Essence - the fundamental nature of a thing, what makes it what it is. Shared by all members of a species but no two essences are the same. Essence or form gives matter its identity. Permanent, unalterable, and unchangeable in every possible world

Aristotle on essence - defined essence as things that members in a category all possess, without they cannot be members of the category

Freud on essence - defined the essence with his own theory of the ID, ego, and superego

Diana Fuss on essence - defined essentialism as a common belief in the real true essence of things. The “whatness” of a given entity

Classical humanism - an essentialist view of human nature as something eternal and unchangeable

Buddhist Challenge to essentialism - self is an illusion/doesn’t exist and searching for an illusion can cause pain and anxiety and destruction. All things move and change. Doctrine of impermanence

Scientific challenge to essentialism -  humans are biochemical/mechanical machines. Thinking and reasoning are just functions of the brain, there’s no ghost in the machine

Behaviourism - coined by BF Skinner, human behaviour/nature is controlled by our environment

Feminist challenge to essentialism - aristotle thought that men’s superior reasoning makes them natural rulers over women, questioning the essential characteristics of men, women, and different races. Feminists challenges this notion, as well as the importance of reason over empathy/intuition

Existentialist challenge to essentialism - focusing on individual autonomy and one’s need to make decisions for themselves. Existence precedes essence; we are free to make ourselves, to decide our own nature or identity. Means life may have no meaning at all, creating existential angst

Existentialism - Movement that examines subjective individual meaning and purpose. Pursuing meaning in what seems meaningless. Focusing on the philosophy of death, reason, and ontology. Focusing on individual autonomy and the need to make reasoned decisions for oneself. Existence precedes essence

Existentialist thinkers - kierkegard, nietzshe, sartre, beauvoir, camus

What is philosophy - philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, logic, values and reason, the mind and language. The word philosophy comes from two greek words: philein, which means to love, and sofia which means wisdom. Anthony Quinton wrote that philosophy is “thinking

Name three philosophical system builders and explain what they built - Plato felt that reason is necessary and defining part of humans. From this he built the tripartite system of the soul to explain human nature. Socrates created the socratic method, a cooperative dialogue to stimulate critical thinking and gain deeper insight. Aristotle focused on the concept of essence, with substance as the primary reality. He defined essence as things that members in a category all possess, without they cannot be members of the category, placing all beings into categories, with substance being the most fundamental category. 

What is the socratic method - a cooperative dialogue created by socrates to stimulate critical thinking. poses a question about a complex issue or a commonly held belief, the response is scrutinized through further questioning. Process continues with rounds of questioning until a more precise definition or deeper insight comes along. 

What is a philosophical argument?  - a philosophical argument is a reasoned set of statements or propositions that work together to support a concluding statement. 

Name and explain all 6 areas of philosophical enquiry - the six areas are. logic, metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, social/political philosophy. Logic comes from greek word logos, the study or formal reasoning. Trying to differentiate between right and wrong or true and false through correct reasoning. Exposing faulty arguments and examining assumptions. Metaphysics is the study of the basic structures of reality. Considered by many philosophers to be the ‘first philosophy”. Epistemology is the study of knowledge and is worthy of belief by a rational person. Questioning what it means to know, how much we can trust our senses, and how/if we can be certain of what we know. Ethics comes from the greek word ethos, meaning character. Often seen as synonymous with morals and can be defined as “moral philosophy” study what good/bad character traits are. Aesthetics is the philosophy of art and beauty. Tries to explain how people perceive and assess the meaning, purpose, and impression of art/beauty. social/political philosophy asks questions of how society should be organized to meet people’s needs. 

How is Plato's "Allegory of the Cave" representative of philosophy - the allegory of the cave represents philosophy because it illustrates the journey from ignorance to enlightenment. The cave symbolizes those who solely rely on empirical evidence, and the shadows are illusions of truth. Through the prisoners we see the futility of those who claim mastery as a result of empirical evidence without true knowledge or understanding. The escape is the philosopher’s quest for knowledge beyond the senses. The whole story highlights the resistance and fear people who towards philosophical truths and philosophers. 

What are altruism and egoism - altruism is the idea that humans will care for and help others even when it doesn’t benefit them. Egoism is the idea that humans only care for themselves and what will benefit them. 

What and what are essentialists - essentialist thinkers include Aristotle, Freud, Diana Fuss, and Saint Augustine of Hippo. Essentialists believe that  things have a set of characteristics that define them. These qualities precede and coninicde with its existence and are necessary to the thing’s identity

What is plato’s tripartite theory of the soul - there are three elements of the soul. Spirit (as expressed through emotions and characteristics), appetite (base primal urges), and reason. Reason is the dominant trait because it balances conflict between the two other elements. Could of been the basis for freud’s iceberg and maslow’s hierarchy of needs. 

What is essence - essence is the fundamental nature of a thing, what makes it what it is. Shared by all members of a species but no two essences are the same. Essence or form gives matter its identity. Permanent, unalterable, and unchangeable in every possible world

What is existentialism - Movement that examines subjective individual meaning and purpose. Pursuing meaning in what seems meaningless. Focusing on the philosophy of death, reason, and ontology. Focusing on individual autonomy and the need to make reasoned decisions for oneself. Existence precedes essence

Thomas Hobbes (intro) - english philosopher wrote Leviathan and believed that self-interest/egoism is human nature. We are inherently greedy and aggressive. We are naturally antisocial and cooperation/socialization is solely used to better one’s position. 

John Stuart Mill (intro) - english philosopher who countered Hobbes’s idea of human nature. Believed that while humans have a degree of self interest, he focused on the idea of kindness and benevolence within us. He argued that humans have a desire to know. We desire knowledge above all else and no one would prefer ignorant bliss over informed normality. 

Aristotle (intro) - greek philosopher who recognized the link between humans and animals. He called humans “rational/civilized animals”. To him we were animals capable of acquiring knowledge. We are unique because we pursue both knowledge and happiness, which are mutually supportive. defined essence as things that members in a category all possess, without they cannot be members of the category

Plato (intro)  -  greek philosopher who felt that reason is the necessary and defining part of humans. Came up with the tripartite theory of the soul. felt that the soul is different from the body, existing both before birth and after death. Felt that philsophers should prepare for life after death

Socrates (intro) - greek philsopher who said that that people don’t choose to do evil. “To know good is to do good”. interested in agreeing upon definitions in philosophical discussions. Created the socratic mehtod

Descartes (intro) - French philosopher who believed that humans are born with innate ideas such as God, the self, and mathematical truths. He also believed that the most important way to understand human nature is through studying consciousness and thought.

Logic - coming from greek word logos, the study or formal reasoning. Trying to differentiate between right and wrong or true and false through correct reasoning. Exposing faulty arguments and examining assumptions. There are two forms of reasoning logic can take, deductive or inductive

Deduction - involves drawing a specific conclusion from a general statement from big to small picture. Ex. all birds have a beaks, so if I am a bird i must have a beak

Induction - involves drawing a general conclusion from a specific statement/premise. Small picture to big picture. Ex. this bird has a beak so all birds must have beaks

Aristotle on logic - discussed tools of logic in his work Organon. He was the first to suggest that logic should not be treated as a unique discipline but it should be applied in every branch of logic. He developed the three laws of thought

Aristotle’s three laws of thought - 1⟹ law of noncontradiction, something cannot exist and not exist at the same time.  Law of excluded middle⟹ something must either be or not be, there’s no other option.  Law of identity⟹ something is what it is it cannot be something else

Kurt godel on logic and math - showed that some mathematical concepts cannot be proven, even if the correct rules/principles are applied. Therefore math is not a complete or finished discipline

An argument - groups of statement with premise(s) designed to justify a conclusion

Premise - factual statement or proposition

Conclusion - statement that follow premise(s)

Logical consistency - in an argument, statements that don’t contradict each other

Logical contradiction - statements that contradict each other

Abductive reasoning - seeking the simplest and most likely conclusion from observations/premises. The “best guess”

Truth VS validity - truth is the actual truth and correctness of the statement, validity is if you’re using correct reasoning/structure. If the statements are truth and the reasoning is valid, the argument is sound.

Syllogisms (general) - a formal argument consisting of a major and minor premise and a conclusion

Categorical syllogism - syllogism that states if objects belong/don’t belong in a category by going from a general premise to specific conclusion. Includes a major and minor premise, middle term, predicate term, and subject. 

Disjunctive syllogism - syllogism involving choice using an either or statement. In the premise, one alternative is denied and the conclusion reaffirms the other. 

Hypothetical syllogism - syllogism expressing a hypothesis always using the word if. Hypothesis followed by statement then conclusion. Automatically considered correct if it is built correctly. 

Fuzzy logic - logic that operates in “shades” of truth or falseness as opposed to absolute truth

Boolean logic - opposite of fuzzy logic, results are absolute truth or falseness

Argument by analogy - type of inductive reasoning proposing similarities between items because of other similarities

False or weak analogy - type of fallacy questioning relevance, is there enough information to establish this connection?

Ockham’s razor - if you have two competing options you should choose the simpler one as it is usually the right choice (abductive reasoning). Favours the simplest solution using the fewest possible entities to solve the problem. 

Fallacy (general) - flaw or fault in an argument. Trying to persuade without proper grounds for the conclusion. 

Formal fallacy - structural error in deductive logic

Informal fallacy - argument that persudaes by means other than reason. Three main categories all with many subcategories. Relevance, ambiguity, and presumption

Ad Hominem fallacy - fallacy of relevance. Attacking the source of the argument often an attack against the preson

hasty generalization fallacy - fallacy of presumption. Tries to draw a broad generalization out of a specific case

Equivocation fallacy - fallacy of ambiguity. Using an ambiguous word in two or more ways in the same argument

Big questions of philosophy and science - is science truly objective? Can scientific theories be proven. Can science alone tell us what the world is truly like?

Science first order questions - how does it work?

Philosophy second order questions - why does it work?can we know the reason? Is it morally right?

Pre-socratic science of philosophy - trying to explain the nature the universe. To materialists, everything is made up of matter, even thoughts. Atomists believed there were bits of matter so small they’re invisible to the naked eye. 

Aristotle and the philosophy of science - first true philosopher of science. Collected specimens, observed, recorded, and classified them. Influenced christian and muslim thinkers. 

Ptolemy - proposed way of thinking accepted until the late renaissance. In the geocentric solar system, earth is at the center. Fit with christian teaching about god and creation

NOMA - non overlapping magisteria; principle that says science and religion are two distinct fields of study.richard dawkins argues that these fields cannot be separate this division is caused by the religious belief in “miracles” which directly opposes science. Created by stefan jay gould. Richard dawkins criticized noma. 

Paradigm shift - a paradigm is a way of thinking, a certain worldview. A paradigm shift occurs when a certain way of thinking or belief is discredited. Once you move to this new paradigm, you find the other stupid

Hume and causation - david hume dismissed our standard accounts of casualty and that our preceptions of cause and effect are grounded in habits of thinking. He created the term circular thinking to describe using induction to explain induction

Aristotle (logic) - greek philosopher who first suggested that logic should not be treated as a unique discipline but it should be applied in every branch of logic. First true philosopher of science. He developed his three laws of thought

Francis Bacon (logic) - developed the scientific method after the focus of logic switched inductive reasoning. 

Kurt Godel  (logic) - philosopher who showed that some mathematical concepts cannot be proven, even if the correct rules/principles are applied. Therefore math is not a complete or finished discipline. 

Charles Sanders Pierce (logic) - coined abductive reasoning, a type of inductive reasoning. 

Copernicus (logic) - came up with the heliocentric universe theory, later supported by Galileo and Kepler

Charles Darwin (logic) - questioned god, leading to the conflict between science and religion. Applied inductive reasoning to create his theory of natural selection. Demonstrated the significant scientific conclusions that come from collecting empirical evidence. 

Thomas Kuhn (logic) - coined the term paradigm shift. Said that normal science is puzzle solving. Scientists operate within a paradigm they have been trained in. they push boundaries but never question the paradigm. Science is a lens with which we view the world and isn’t more valid than other types of knowledge. 

David hume (logic) - david hume dismissed our standard accounts of casualty and that our preceptions of cause and effect are grounded in habits of thinking. He created the term circular thinking to describe using induction to explain induction

Metaphysics - the study of the basic structures of reality

Metaphysics topics/questions - what is “reality”, what is “being”, what is the meaning of existence, is there a supreme god/being, what is “the self”, are the mind and brain the same thing, what is a person, can there be non-human persons, does free will exist

Ontology - branch of metaphysics dealing with being, existence, and reality

Substance - idea that things enjoy an independant existence. Substance anchor’s a thing’s changing process. 

Essence - what makes something what is it, its fundamental nature

Monism - theory or belief that reality is made of one all-emcompasing thing. There’s no distinction, mind and matter are the same. However, monists debate on what that “thing” is. 

Materialism - type of monism proposed by pre-soctraic thinkers. Reality is made of matter, including all things, mental state, and matter. 

Idealism - another type of monomism. Reality consists of ideas and the minds that house those ideas. Reality is composed by our perception/mind/spirit. Things rely on our perception to exist. 

Dualism - reality is made of two things: mind and matter. They are separate from each other but can interact. 

Realism - theory developed by plato based on his ideal forms. These forms are unchanging, immaterial, and more perfect than the reality we experience. An object or thing has certain attributes independent from what people think/perceive about it

Common-sense realism - what people perceive from their senses under ordinary circumstances is reality

Heraclitus on reality - ancient greek philosopher who believed that nothing lasts forever, therefore there’s no such thing as an unchanging being. All is becoming, changing from one state to another, but this change does not seem to be chaos. Believed that you should trust input from senses as they are reality in the moment. 

Logos - what governs change in accordance with it. Logos translates to reason, plan, discourse, and word. All change is ordferly and requires one thing that does not change; logos. 

Process philosophy - philosophical process that sees reality as something constantly changing and evolving. A thing does not have determined parameters or a start and end point, it’s an incomplete integration of “occasions of experience”

Intelligibility - philosophical notion that things change but not in a uniform manner, two stones don’t change in the same way under same/similar conditions. 

Questions in intelligibility - why are things similar at all, why not a chaotic, patternless, blurry mess? What allows us the generalize from the particular?

Parmenides on reality - rivaled heraclitus and took a monist position. Distrusted physical senses as they can easily be fooled and instead trusted reason. Add motivations, themes, characters, branch them out and connect that back to the story. Believed that “being” was reality. Being is timeless, uniform, indivisible and self originating

Plato’s theory of forms - Any object or concept is trying to replicate a form, which has the thing’s true essence. The forms unchanging, immaterial, and more perfect than the reality we experience. The forms are more real than their physical copies and they are the purest form of existence possible, giving intelligibility. 

Taoism - Theory that for some, reality cannot be understood through reason, as it breaks up the oneness of reality. An intuition that transcends reason is needed. Taoism goal is to be one with nature, leading a simple life to be in harmony  with the oneness of Tao. everything is in flux/cycles of development or decline, this is caused by Tao

The Tao - All things come from and are sustained by the Tao, which existed before the universe. Tao is not a thing, event or person, it cannot be described by the limitations of language. Causes the  flux/cycles of development or decline. Expressed by ying and yang, one passive one active, together as one, they are Tao

Doctrine of impermanence - since all things are impermanent and in a constant state of flux (including thyself), they must be empty of any type of essence. Any search for a universal transcendent essence will lead failure or suffering

Buddhists on reality - things are impermenant and empty of a nature/being/essence. However, they’re not empty of function/meaning/purpose. If things are so impermenant, where is the essence to anchor their existence?

Martin Heidegger on being - being can be understand as the concept of lived time. A verb rather than a noun. A beings “being” allows it to stand out and become intelligible. Humans are defined by future-oriented concepts of being, we must come to terms with our being and decide to be or not to be. 

Substance theory of the self -  created by descartes, the self is a determinate (can’t change) all-encompassing, and lasting  mental thing as opposed to a material thing. The self directs the brain and body, it supports change based on experience but doesn’t change itself. Aligns with theories of the soul

Narrative theory of the self -  theory created by Paul Riccoeur.  We make sense of our experiences by narrating them and we link ourselves to others through this narrative. Narrative continues through life, stories are dropped and new ones are told

Bundle theory of the self - theory created by David Hume.  the “self” is nothing more than a collection of bits of experiences, desires, and ideas. The only thing knitting them together is your perspective, there’s no unifying thread. The self is the individual perspective where these experiences occur, that is constantly changing an evolving. 

Project theory of the self - created by Satre, similar to Heidegger’s concept of being.  self is not a thing, but an event in time. Our future is not given, we construct . our feelings, desires, and thoughts are representative of our fundamental project, they’re an expression of how we constitute ourselves

Buddhist response/theory of the self - self is an illusion that does not exist. Like  the doctrine of impermanence, all things are constantly in a state of move and change. Searching for the illusion of self can be painful and destructive. 

John Locke’s views on personal identity - our body is important as it is in a constant state of decay. Neither is our soul. “Continuing consciousness”; our ability to relive, remember, and take responsibility for action in relation to the self is what makes up our identity

Darik Parfit’s view on personal identity - survival is the key aspect of our personal identity. Survival and identity are the continued mental states, memories, and psychological characteristics rather than a persisting unchanging self. Links are connected and create a whole but each link is not connected to every other link.

Self deception - goal oriented act of deceiving ourselves to avoid painful emotion.it’s unconscious and unplanned. 

Richard Rorty’s views on self determination - there is a woven, constantly changing fabric of existence. You are constantly planning and free to decide which direction you go. Drifting and change as opposed to “progress”. We can never truly know ourselves as the meaning we try to attach to “text” will vary at different stages of life and will always be incomplete. 

Questions in the mind brain problem - what/is there a connection between the physical brain matter and ideas (consciousness)? What is the relationship between the physical mind and personal identity/the self?

Monist solution to mind-brain problem - reality is just composed of one thing. The thing itself is argued on and therefore there are many subtypes of monism. Mind and body are both composed of one thing, that’s not mental or materiel. 

Spinoza’s monist solution to mind brain problem - the one thing that composes everything is “god or nature” which expresses itself in infinite dimensions. 

Materialist solution to mind-brain problem - type of monism. reality is only made up of matter, including thoughts, ideas,personalities, and consciousness, they all derive from matter.

Idealist solution to mind-brain problem - type of monism. Reality is only made up of ideas and the minds that house them. The physical world exists but is dependent on mind and perception to exist. 

Eliminativist materialist’s solution to mind-brain problem - believe that language has led us down the wrong path. Common sense psychology is a false theory of human behaviour. Promote brain-state language as opposed to people’s mentalist self-conceptions. 

Eliminativist materialist’s solution criticticisms - exaggerating the inability of common sense psychology, if it was so inadequate, it would of already died. 

Dualist’s solution to mind-brain problem - dualists argue that reality is composed by two fundamentally different thing; mental and material. Consciousness cannot be reduced to matter

Substance dualist’s solution to mind-brain problem - coined by descartes. Reality is composed of two fundamentally different things; material and mental substances. The human mind exists independently of the body. The mind interacts with the body but how it does as a mystery. Thinking is the essential characteristic of the mind. 

Functionalist solution to mind-brain problem - type of materialism (and monism) minds are to brains as software is to hardwear. It doesn’t matter how mental states are achieved just that they are achieved. Mental states are caused by brain activities, but some argue they could be caused by alternative means. 

Subjectivist solution to mind-brain problem - subjectivists distinguish between consciousness and unconsciousness, as consciousness is a fully separate dimension of reality. Conscious things have a point of view, they’re a conscious organism.

Epiphenomenalist’s solution to mind-brain problem - type of dualism that denies any link between the mind and brain. Consciousness is a byproduct of physical processes, they can coincide but don’t cause each other. 

Identity theorist’s solution to mind-brain problem - mental and brain states are identical, for each thought there is a corresponding brain state. An idea is a mental and brain state at the same time. 

New mysterianism response to mind-brain problem - the link between mind and brain is a mystery. There are limits to our cognitive abilities. 

John Locke’s views on personhood - he defined being a person as a “thinking, intelligent being that has reason and reflection. With a conscious that is inseparable from thinking”. Human biology is not enough to make someone a person. 

Dan Denett’s views on personhood - a person must have six basic characteristics: rationality, conscious mental states, being the subject of a specific stance or attiude when perceived by others, reciprocating this perception of others, capacity for verbal communication, self consciousness. 

Mary Ann Warren’s views on personhood - essential personhood characteristics include: consciousness/awareness of objects and ability to feel pain, reasoning/problem-solving abilities, a bility to carry out self motivated activities, able to communicate messages of an infinite variety of types, presence of self concepts and self awareness

Annette Baier’s views on personhood - person tests reflect the biases of the designer. Persons are dependant on one another, our personhood is responsive to those around us

Theism - study of gods in a general sense. There is a poweful being that can intervene and control the world. Mircales and reveflations are evidence that they had an interest in creation. 

Deism - theory thata being created this machine (the world/universe) and then withdrew. They do not have power in this moment

Monotheism - idea that there is one singular supreme being that rules over everything. 

Polytheism - there’s a set of gods, each with a specific purpose, that rule the universe. 

Pantheism - an impersonal divine existence that extends through nature and time and space. Their spirit is everywhere but they’re not a person. 

 Ontological argument for proving existence - god is the greatest conceivable being, therefore perfect.A god that only exists in our minds is not perfection, but one that exists in both mind and reality is. Since god is perfect, he must exist in both our minds and reality. 

Cosmological argument for proving existence - whatever exists must come from something else. At some point the chain must stop with something that is self-casuing; God. there is a beginning from where we came from, but that one supreme being did not create us. 

Design argument for provig existence - type of teological argument, ordered universe and existence cannot come from nothing. Some designer must of created order from the chaos

Pascal’s wager - asks what you have to gain or lose by believing in god. The potential reward of belief outweighs the potential loss. Therefore, it is rational to believe in god regardless of evidence or uncertainty. 

Atheist response to supreme being - atheists respond to the possibility of a supreme being through skepticism or denial of existence. 

Agnostic response to supreme being - agnostics respond to the possibility of a supreme being through skepticism and uncertainty without outright denial, stating that the question is unknowable. 

Determinism - theory that everything that happens is a series of causes and effects that occur in a long chain. Human actions and choices are caused by factors external to their will. Everything is predetermined and cause/effect. The current state of the universe dictates future events. Hard determinsim says you are trapped by the events around you, pretty much unable to have free will. Soft determinists argue that determinism and free will are are compatible. While we are casually determined by circumstances, we possess free will and still have moral responsibility. 

Free will - free will is the philosophical idea that we are in control of our actions and hold responsibility for them. Sartre says we are condemned to be free, creating angst. Freedom can become a problem if we are set adrift by it and not grounded. 

Albert Camus’s approach to meaning of life - camus said that judging whether life is worth living  is the same as answering fundamental questions of philosophy. He introduced the concept of the “absurd”, our search for meaning in a meaningless world. His response to that, and the meaning of life as a whole is embracing the inherent uncertainty and chaos of life while affirming life’s beauty and value. 

Nihilist approach to meaning of life - from a nihilist standpoint life has no value, meaning or purpose, viewing existence of fundamentally absurd or meaningless. Active nihlists accept the lack of meaning in the world and go on to create their own (like in existentlaism) while passive nihilist accept this lack of meaning, which often grows into existential despair, apathy, or hopelessness. They may adopt cynical mindset feeling resigned to absurdity of life. 

Theistic approach to meaning of life - your presence is part of a supreme being’s ultimate plan. The meaning in your life comes from the relationship you build with this being. Faith and deviation will align you with divine pathways and fulfill your ultimate purpose. 

Existentialist approach to meaning of life - the meaning of life is subjective, created by the person experiencing it. Nothing is created until it is first thought of. Our ability to think and be self aware is what gives us the responsibility to create as we wish

Baruch Spinoza (metaphysics) - Dutch philosopher and monist. believed that the one all-encompassing thing composing reality is God. came up with the theory of pantheism, suggesting god and nature as identical, everything in the universe is part of god’s existence. Came up with the idea of infinite substance that is infinite, timeless and perfect. For example, mind and body are different attributes of the same substance. Criticized other forms of monism for restricting substance to one mode. 

Thomas Hobbes (metaphysics) - monist who believed that all of reality is made up of matter. 

Plato  - realist. Developed the theory of ideal forms, also known as Plato’s epistemology or Platonic ideals. These ideas or forms are perfect and unchangeable, existing before birth. What is “learned” is actually recalled. Knowledge derives from these forms, anything else is uncertain opinion. Also came up with the allegory of the cave. 

Lazoi (metaphysics) -Chinese mystic and philosopher known for coining Taoism, credited with writing the foundational text of Taoism. He emphasized the taoist idea of living a simple life in harmony with natural order. 

Descartes (metaphysics) -  substance dualist. Thought there were two kinds of substances. Extended substances who’s essence takes up space (chairs, rocks, brains). There are also thinking substances who’s essence is thought (mind). His dualism doesn’t explain how these substances interact. Created the substance theory of the self. 

Martin Heidegger (metaphysics) - believed ontology was the first philosophy. He said that being can be understand as the concept of lived time. A verb rather than a noun. A beings “being” allows it to stand out and become intelligible. Humans are defined by future-oriented concepts of being, we must come to terms with our being and decide to be or not to be. 

Sartre (metaphysics) - came up with the substance theory of the self. 

John locke - english philosopher and empiricst. Theory on personal identity. He argued against the idea of innate self an proposed the mind as a blank slate (Tabula Rasa) and all knowledge is acquired from sensory experience. If someone can recall past experiences they are the same person over time. He defined a person as a “thinking intelligent being that has reason and reflection”. 

 in terms of personal identity, he believed that our body is important as it is in a constant state of decay. Neither is our soul. “Continuing consciousness”; our ability to relive, remember, and take responsibility for action in relation to the self is what makes up our identity. Defender of new mystrianism

Karl Marx (metaphysics) - “religion is the opiate of the masses.” He means that religion has been used as a form of social control, and prevents the oppressed from recognizing social injustices.

Nietzsche (metaphysics)  - “God is dead” Nietzsche critiqued several major metaphysical concepts such as the existence of absolute truths, moral absolutes, and a definitive god. He suggested the driving force behind existence is a fundamental desire to grow and overcome. He explained knowledge as subjective, influenced by perspective and the power of the knower. 

Blaise Pascal (metaphysics) - Pascal's Wager: if God exists: believers win big (heaven), non believers lose huge (hell).

If God doesn’t exist, believers lose and non believers win, but who cares?

What is metaphysics and what are the questions of metaphysics - metaphysics is the study of the basic structures of reality. Questions include  what is “reality”, what is “being”, what is the meaning of existence, is there a supreme god/being, what is “the self”, are the mind and brain the same thing, what is a person, can there be non-human persons, does free will exist

What are the different theories of the self - substance theory, narrative theory, project theory, bundle theory

What are the different theories of reality - monism, dualism, realism, idealism, materialism, substance dualism (descartes) taosim, buddhist persecptive

What is ontology and what does martin heidegger mean by “being” - ontology is the branch of metaphysics dealing with being, existence, and reality, which Heidegger considered the first philosophy. He defined being as something that can be understood as the concept of lived time. A verb rather than a noun. A beings “being” allows it to stand out and become intelligible. Humans are defined by future-oriented concepts of being, we must come to terms with our being and decide to be or not to be. 

Explain the idea of forms - theory developed by Plato stating that behind physical appearances are perfect, eternal and unchanging abstract entities called forms or ideals. They are true reality and the physical world is an imperfect copy of them. The knowledge of these forms are not gained through sensory experience but they’re innate knowledge acquired even before birth. 

How do philosophers view the concept of personhood? - perspectives from john locke, dan dennett, mary ann warren, annette baier

What are the solutions to the mind/brain problem -  monist, materielast, idealist, eliminativist, dualist, substance dualist (spinoza), functionalist, subjectivist, epiphenomenalist, identity theorist, new mysticism

What are the different views on the Supreme Being? - deism, polytheism, monotheism, pantheism

What is the relationship between determinism and freedom? - determinsim is the theory that everything that happens is a series of causes and effects that occur in a long chain. Human actions and choices are caused by factors external to their will. Everything is predetermined and cause/effect. However, different type of determinism argue whether this means that we don’t have free will. Hard determinists will argue that determinism and free will are not compatible, your fate is predetermined and your choices are trapped by circumstances. Soft determinism argues that determinsim and free will can be comptable. While we can be casually determined by external factors, we still have some free will and must be responsible for our actions and choices. 

What are the approaches to the meaning of life? - camus’s approach, nihilistic, theistic, existentialist

What is epistemology- The area of philosophy surrounding knowledge. Questions such as: what constitutes justification for knowing something? What does it mean to know? How can we claim to know anything? Can people know the world as it really is? Are there some things we can never know? How do you know that?

 Identify and give examples of rationalists and empiricists- Rationalism: reason and intellect are the primary sources of knowledge and that certain truths about the world can be known independently of sensory experience. A Priori knowledge.  ex. Plato, Descartes. Empiricism: sensory experience is the ultimate source of all our concepts and knowledge. According to empiricists, humans are born without any innate ideas, and all knowledge comes from experience. A Posteriori knowledge. Ex. Aristotle, Locke.

What is the link between a priori and a posteriori knowledge- A Priori knowledge: Prior to experience. Does not rely on senses and is independent of experience, relies strictly on mental ability to reason. Math, logic, true by definition. you can see that it is true. A Posteriori knowledge: relies on sensory input / experience / evidence. ex. Science comes after sensory input

What is the difference between knowledge, belief, and opinion- Opinions – often considered unreliable, based on sensory experience which varies from person to person. An opinion cannot be considered true or false. Beliefs – a little more reliable than opinions, belief statements can be classified as true or false. (i.e. I believe my car is parked outside) Knowledge – more powerful than opinions and beliefs, can be proven

What is true belief?  Justified true belief- Two conditions must be met for true belief: truth and belief.  Plato suggested that true belief wasn’t enough, but knowledge is based on truth, belief, and justification. Edmund Gettier challenged this with two scenarios that showed someone having false justified true beliefs. a fourth condition necessary for knowledge: Belief: The person must believe the proposition. Truth: The proposition must be true. Justification: The person must have justification for believing the proposition. No Defeaters (or Gettier Problems): There must be no defeating evidence or situations.

What is the difference between direct and indirect knowledge- Direct knowledge: a.k.a. simple knowledge or perceptual knowledge, acquired through experience / perceived through senses, does not rely on indirect knowledge, It cannot be judged true or false; knowledge of things as they are. Indirect knowledge: a.k.a. complex knowledge or inferential knowledge

acquired by using the power of reason to connect pieces of direct knowledge (a posteriori), relies on direct knowledge, It can be judged true or false since it is based on justification

Explain the relationship between foundationalists and anti-foundationalists- Foundationalists: Aristotle, Locke, Russell, Descartes. all knowledge is built on a base of certain, secure "foundations." Knowledge consists of human experiences. Direct knowledge is self-evident and therefore doesn’t need justification.  Anti-Foundationalists: Hegel, Pragmatists, Postmodernists. There are no unquestionable foundations for knowledge. Instead, all beliefs are justified in relation to each other.

What is skepticism- Skeptics doubt all assumptions until they are proven. Skepticism is a tool or approach. Some doubt that knowledge is even possible.  

Explain the brain in a vat- A brain has been removed from a human body and placed in a vat of life-sustaining fluid. Technology connects this brain to a supercomputer that sends it electrical impulses identical to those the brain would normally receive if it were still inside a body. The computer generates a perfectly realistic simulation of an external world, such that the brain experiences this simulation just as if it were experiencing the real world. Used to explore questions about reality and perception, the external world, justification of our beliefs, responses to skepticism.

What is the basis for knowing- Rationalism relies on reason, logical deduction, and innate knowledge. Some truths are accessible through intellectual insight alone. Empiricism relies on sensory experience and empirical evidence. All knowledge originates from our interactions with the world around us.

What is truth?  What is the relationship between truth and perception- Truth is the quality or state of being true. The problem with truth is that philosophers disagree about what truth is.  Some people define something as true if it is not false or not a lie. Truth can be what you know or feel and this is based on intuition.

Common-Sense Realism: People perceive the world exactly as it is. What you see is what you get. Common-sense realism is significant because it comes closest to everyday notions of perception.

Sophists: perception is reality, for you. Someone else’s reality will be different.

Representative Theory of Perception: developed by John Locke. Ideas in the mind are merely representations of objects in the real world, like a photograph of an object. The object and the idea in the mind are separate and distinct. “epistemological dualism”

Subjective Idealism: An epistemological theory, developed by George Berkeley, that says that what is perceived as real or true exists only in the mind. 

Phenomenalism: Immanuel Kant. people can never know objects in the world as they really are. objects as they are, outside perception (or ‘noumena’) interact with the categories of understanding which are innate. Interaction between reason and senses (phenomena) is the source of knowledge or truth. Phenomenalism is significant because it attempts to strike a compromise between rationalist and empiricist theories.

Correspondence theory: beliefs are true when they correspond, or agree, with reality. Correspondence theory is significant because it represents a common sense approach to truth. 

Coherence theory: Hegel. beliefs are true when they cohere, or are consistent, with an existing belief or body of knowledge. Coherence theory is significant because it enables people to determine the truth of things that cannot be perceived by the senses. 

Pragmatic theory: Truth is neither fixed nor absolute. Pragmatists say that people create their own truths on the basis of whether something works, is useful, or is successful. Pragmatic theory is significant because it says truth must be judged according to consequences.

Socrates- Developed the socratic method as a form of teaching and exploring knowledge. Socrates would ask probing questions to help individuals examine their own beliefs and the validity of those beliefs. Equated knowledge with virtue.

Plato- Rationalist. Believed that knowledge gained from the senses was subject to change, therefore argued that this kind of knowledge is unreliable as it only ever generates opinions about objects belonging to the sensory world.True knowledge is acquired through reason, which allows us an understanding of the unseen world of what is real. Knowledge of the forms exist in our minds from birth and are innate. Learning is simply remembering these forms. Knowledge is Justified true belief.People embark on a intellectual journey that involves moving from dreaming, to imagining, to believing, to thinking, and to true knowledge. (remember Allegory of the Cave)The Plato Problem (referring to the Meno Dialogue): How we account for our knowledge when environmental conditions seem to be an insufficient source of information.

Truth is permanent, fixed, and independent of individual subjectivity. It is acquired through reason and its meaning endures for all time. Knowledge is objective, real, and independent. Senses are inadequate, reason is necessary (rationalism). Creates separate worlds of forms (knowledge) and senses (perception)

Aristotle- Empiricist. Foundationalist. Agreed that the abstract world of the forms is superior. Reason as the distinguishing characteristic of being human. DID NOT agree that the forms were innate, but reason was to be applied after experience. The physical world is made of matter (that is sensed) and immaterial (the essence of material things, which cannot be sensed) Favours inductive reasoning to generalize about the world. There is an objective, independent truth. Evidence from the senses are how we arrive at the truth

Rene Descartes- Rationalist. Foundationalist. Accepts nothing as true that he did not clearly recognize as so.  He didn’t trust the senses. Cogito ergo sum – “I think, therefore I am”. He doubted his own existence.

He brought in the option of an evil genius (all sensory input, thoughts and ideas are placed in our minds by an all-powerful evil genius) – reality might be an illusion

He used deductive reasoning to establish this truth, a movement from one true statement to the next in order to arrive at certainty.Denied the existence of the physical world. Our minds make rational inferences to gain an understanding of things that really exist.Focused on the thinking and thinker. From one indisputable truth — I think, therefore I am — people can pursue other unassailable truths.

Reach the truth first by doubting everything then through reason and deduction.

Immanuel Kant- Tries to bridge the gap between rationalists and empiricists.

The human mind binds sensory input and knowledge gained from reason, which is innate (time, space, cause and effect).Epistemological phenomenalism:people can never know objects in the world as they really are. objects as they are, outside perception (or ‘noumena’) interact with the categories of understanding which are innate. Interaction between reason and senses (phenomena) is the source of knowledge or truth. Phenomenalism is significant because it attempts to strike a compromise between rationalist and empiricist theories.

Kongfuzi- a.k.a. Confucius. Implied that a wise person only claims to know what they know and not anything more. Gaining knowledge is a lifelong process.

Noam Chomsky- Focus on linguistics. The deep structure of language is hard-wired in humans.  (e.g. children say “me go night-night” whereas adults say “I’m going to bed”, the child isn’t copying the adult)

John Locke- Empiricist. Foundationalist. Tabula rasa – the blank slate.Sensory input through experience

gives us knowledge.Founder of the British empiricist movement Two classifications of ideas according to Locke: Simple ideas: based on simple sensationsComplex ideas: a combination of simple sensations 

All matter has primary (objective) and secondary (subjective) qualities.

David Hume- SkepticQuestioned Causation and Induction. Against the idea of a priori knowledge, if something cannot be gained/learned/known through sensory knowledge, it must be ignored.

Objects do not exist outside sense perception.Bundle Theory again: objects are perceived as a collection, or bundle, of characteristics: apple=colour, shape, smell, taste. If we remove these characteristics, we cannot conceive of an apple through pure reason.Hume’s theory of knowledge suggests that there are some things humans can never know because it denies the idea of cause and effect. As a result, his theory suggests that humans can never make links between events or know for sure that something will happen as a result of something else. This means that all knowledge derived from scientific investigations may be false.

Thomas Aquinas- Matter and essence are bound up in physical objects (humans are the union of soul and body). Knowledge begins with the senses but then grows with the application of reason.

World reflects the nature of God, orderly and intelligible.

Georg WF Hegel- Anti-foundationalist. Coherence theory: beliefs are true when they cohere, or are consistent, with an existing belief or body of knowledge. Coherence theory is significant because it enables people to determine the truth of things that cannot be perceived by the senses.

Ethics - comes from the greek word ethos, meaning character. Often seen as synonymous with morals and can be defined as “moral philosophy” study what good/bad character traits are.

Three main areas of study is ethics - metaethics, normative theories, applied ethics (debates)

Approaches to ethics - ethicists take a normative or prescriptive approach to define how people should act and the lives they should lead. 

Meta (in philosophy) - meaning beyond or of a higher order

Metaethics - meaning of terms explored when using ethical questions and the methods used to carry out the exploration

Applied ethics - applies theories of action, character, or value to moral dilemmas. 

3 types of normative theories - theories of action, theories of character, and theories of value

Normative theories of action - questioning how people act and why

Normative theories of character - questions good and bad character traits

Normative theories of value - questions about people’s values of assessment of worth.
3 common types of normative ethicists - deontological ethicists, virtue ethicists, consequentialists

Deontological theories - relating to duty, what rule should be followed. Concerned with moral means rather than the end result. Both of these words mean norms or standards for human behaviour

Virtue ethicists theories - concerned with good and bad character traits such as virtue vs flaws

Consequentalist theories - getting the best consequences for the majority. Concerned with the neds rather than the means

Ethical dilemmas - dilemmas that arise in all aspects of human life. Are often hypothetical but they’re used to evaluate common situations and predict consequences of behaviour

Humanism - emphasizes the secular or human realm over the religious or spiritual realm. Emphasizes the importance of free will of moral choice and based off a concern for others. 

The golden mean - the rule of moderation or middle between two extremes of moral behaviour 

Ethical absolutists on determining right and wrong - there is one universal code that determines right and wrong that should be followed at all times. Ex, killing is always wrong

Ethical universalists on determining right and wrong - universal moral code is not absolute, circumstances matter. Ex, killing is sometimes wrong depending on the circumastances

Ethical relativists on determining right and wrong - ethical norms are socially determined and conform to the time period and people in the society. Ex, the morality of killing is not absolute and depends on social, cultural, and indivudal context.

Objectivists in ethics - knowledge of morals is objective. It came stem from a divine source, nature, social norms, or the ability to reason

Subjectivists in ethics - morals based on individual opinions and beliefs that are equally valid.

Ethics questions that matter - 1. What is a good life? 2. What is a good person? 3. What is the right thing to do 

Socrates' response to good life - an unexamined life is not a life worth living. The good life is a life of ethical action within a community of family, friends, and the society around them. Life is measured by one’s actions and the virtues that guide them. 

Buddhist response to the good life - four noble truths; life is suffering, suffering arises from desire, desire can be eliminated, freedom from desire can be achieved through the eightfold path. The buddhist goal is a state of nirvana, which can be achieved with a life of simplicity. Belief in reincarnation/rebirth, depending on if a “good” life is lived. Buddhist virtues include non-violence, compassion for all living creatrues, kindness, and selflessness

Confucianist response to the good life - the good life involves searching for enlightenment, searching for harmony in the community as a whole. The individual is not as important as the community. Confucianism is a virtue ethic. The five main virtues are; kindness, uprightness, decorum, wisdom, faithfulness. 

Taoist response to the good life - similar to confucian response. Emphasize harmony and a holistic approach but in nature instead as opposed to community. Balancing extremes such as ying and yang

Hedonist response to the good life - the good life is being devoted to the pursuit of pleasure, which leads to happiness. Epicurus believed that pleasure is in the mind as opposed to the senses, serenity is the ultimate pleasure. Minimizing desires and overcoming fears. 

Stoic response to the good life - stoicism was popular in ancient Greece, true happiness is achieved through wisdom as opposed to pleasure. The universe is governed by logos and we should strive to live well-ordered lives in accordance with it. Exercising control over emotions and intentions while being indifferent to consequences. 

Ubuntu response to the good life - african worldview based on the values of intense humanass, caring, respect, and community. A person is a person through other people. Enriching yourself to enable the community around you to improve. 

Anishinaabe principles response to the good life - the seven grandfather teachings; love, respect, bravery, honesty, humility, wisdom, truth

Aristotle on being a good person - he believed in future ethics. Doing things in a way that reflected rational thought and one’s ability to make the best of out of their skills, talents, and opportunities. Search for eudemonia or happiness. Practical wisdom and good character are governed by moderation

Thomas Aquinus on being a good person - Combined Christian ideas of God with Aristotle’s thinking about reason, happiness and virtue. People achieve perfection by using their reason to know God

W.D. Ross on being a good person - virtue ethicist. following these virtues in ascending importance; fidelity, reparation, gratitude, justice , beneficence, self improvement, non-maleficence. These are not just virtues but duties and obligations. 

Judith Shklars on being a good person - cruelty is the worst human vice  and it should be the most important thing to avoid

Existentialist’s on being a good person - a good person is one who makes individual moral choices and takes responsibility. Absolute moral values do not exist and the most important virtue is authenticity, being true to oneself while making moral decisions. 

Kierkegaard on being a good person - devout christian background. Each person has a direct relationship and access to God. people must make and judge their own moral choices. People should move beyond absolute ideas of evaluating actions/behaviours and be accountable only to God. 

Nietzsche on being a good person - god has disappeared and people are not accountable to him. People have to make their own choices. Now that a universal faith has disappeared, we must determine our own values. 

Sartre on being a good person - well known existentialist that became atheist and WW2. people must created their own meaning, all moral choices are made freely. Existence preceeds essence. Great responsibility of all choices, responsibility for the choices fall on the individual, not a higher power. Our freedom should not limit the freedom of others, and our freedom can cause angst or anxiety about making authentic choices. We’re morally obligated to recognize the value in both our freedom and the freedom of others. 

Divine command ethicists on the right thing to do - moral choices that are linked to religious beliefs such as the ten commandments. Belief in the existence of a supreme being that judges actions. Proper conducts is determined in holy books or scriptures

Utilitarians on the right thing to do - Utilitarianism was founded by Jermey Bentham. the consequence that brings the greatest amount of good for the greatest amount of people, usefulness of results. Bentham’s godson John Stuart Mill supported but was also criticals of these ideals. Not all pleasures are equal so pros and cons must be weighed. Aesthetic and intellectual pleasure have higher value that physical pleasure. 

Rule utilitarians on the right thing to do - instead of judging individual acts, rule utilitarians looks for general rules that apply to everyone. Don’t do something you can’t imagine someone else doing. Reason and religion do not contradict and we should seeks to maximize the good

Kantian ethicists on consequence vs intention - moral choices must not be judged by their consequence but by “the good will of the moral agent” (intention?). Consequences are out of the person’s control. The only thing that is good for good’s sake is good will. Good will is what accords with duty and duty is rational. 

Categorical imperative (Kant) - act of good will acting on moral principles that are justified by reason. A single rule that must always be obeyed. Kant ‘s best known version is “Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law of nature”. Another version is “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always as an end and never as a mere means”. Treat others with respect and do not deceive or use others for your own benefit. No exceptions, all moral actions will uphold this principle. Emphasizes duty and ignores consequences so it is known as deontological theory. 

Strengths of kant’s categorical imperative - impartiality, no exceptions or playing favourites. Emphasis on motive, if someone means well their action will be morally right no matter the consequences. 

Weaknesses of kant’s categorical imperative - empathy; treating people as a means to an end. Consider individual situations instead of absolutes

John Stuart Mill’s response to categorical imperatives - argued that testing a moral choice by asking if it should be moral law is the same as measuring the consequences. 

Egoism - acting in ones own self interest. Ethical egoism says that people should act in their own self interest. Consequentalist school of thought that seeks the greatest good for the individual. 

Ayn Rand on egoism - asserts that there is no “society” only individual men. Therefore acting in your own self interest is the most logical path. Does not preclude helping others, people will help when they get something in return that is just human nature. 

Rational egoism - contracts for morally acceptable conduct is implicitly and explicitly arranged by members of the society. These arrangements are in everyone’s best interests so self interest supports morality. 

Problems with egoism - limit development of the self. To be fully human you have to acknowledge responsibility to others. James rachels challenges this idea saying that any action that helps others, no matter the motive, is not true egoism. 

Intuitionism - denies the importance of reason in moral decisions and asserts that truths are understood by intuition. Moral rules are intuitive and self evident, they cannot be justified by reason. If it feels right, do it. 

Emotivism or sentimentalism response - moral judgement are products of emotions and feelings of approval or disapproval.

Feminist response to the right thing to do - the ethics of care. Caring is the value that morality should be structured around. Empathy is key. More than doing harm, helping is key. 

Pragmatist response to the right thing to do - what works is guided by experience to promote moral evolution at the given time and place. To pre-set criteria and temporary solutions for temporary problems. 

Postmodernists on the right thing to do - challenge the idea that there’s one universal moral code. Richard rorty says that all moral values are entirely subjective and relative. 

Exucsing conditions in ethics - doing something wrong because of ignorance, compulsion, being compelled to do something, or trying and failing. These factors work in law as they might eliminate the mens rea (guilty mind) of a crime. 

Kongfuzi - contemporary buddha in china. Created the humanist code of behaviour and humanism as a whole

Aristotle (ethics) -   developed the golden mean. With plato he came up with a list of character traits that make up a good person. he believed in future ethics to be a good person. Doing things in a way that reflected rational thought and one’s ability to make the best of out of their skills, talents, and opportunities. 

Plato  (ethics)  - with aristotle, came up with a list of character traits that make up a good person. 

Buddha  (ethics) - came up with the eightfold path. believed that the good life is 4 moral truths; life is suffering, suffering arises from desire, desire can be eliminated, freedom from desire can be achieved through the eightfold path. The buddhist goal is a state of nirvana, which can be achieved with a life of simplicity. Belief in reincarnation/rebirth, depending on if a “good” life is lived. Buddhist virtues include non-violence, compassion for all living creatrues, kindness, and selflessness

Davind Hume  (ethics)  - believed in emotivism or sensitivity. Moral choices are not possible. They are claims of emotion and approval or disapproval. Had an issue with Aquinus’s natural law; just because something is/was a certain way now or in the past, doesn’t mean it ought to be that way. 

Socrates  (ethics)  - believed that an unexamined life is not a life worth living. The good life is a life of ethical action within a community of family, friends, and the society around them. Life is measured by one’s actions and the virtues that guide them. 

Epicurus  (ethics) - hedonist who believed that true pleasure was of the mind rather than the senses. Serenity is the ultimate pleasure. Believed in minimizing desires but also overcoming fears. 

Thomas Aquinus  (ethics)  - in terms of what it means to be a good person, he Christian ideas of God with Aristotle’s thinking about reason, happiness and virtue. People achieve perfection by using their reason to know God. came up with natural law ethics, actions are “natural” or “against nature”

W.D. Ross  (ethics) - virtue ethicist. To be a good person, we should follow these virtues in ascending importance; fidelity, reparation, gratitude, justice , beneficence, self improvement, non-maleficence. These are not just virtues but duties and obligations. 

Kierkegaard  (ethics) - devout christian philosopher. Each person has a direct relationship and access to God. people must make and judge their own moral choices. People should move beyond absolute ideas of evaluating actions/behaviours and be accountable only to God. 

Nietzsche  (ethics) - god has disappeared and people are not accountable to him. People have to make their own choices to be a good person. Now that a universal faith has disappeared, we must determine our own values. 

Sartre  (ethics) - well known existentialist that became atheist and WW2. people must created their own meaning, all moral choices are made freely. Existence preceeds essence. Great responsibility of all choices, responsibility for the choices fall on the individual, not a higher power. Our freedom should not limit the freedom of others, and our freedom can cause angst or anxiety about making authentic choices. We’re morally obligated to recognize the value in both our freedom and the freedom of others. 

Kant  (ethics) - created the categorical imperative. There are no exceptions to the categorical imperative and and all moral action will uphold its principle. Impartiaulity and emphasis on motive. Emphasized that good will is in accordance with duty. Moral choices should not be judged by their consequences but by the good will of the moral agent. The only thing that is good for good’s sake is goodwill. 

Bentham  (ethics)- Utilitarianism. Focus on consequences of moral acts and the usefulness of the results

Assumption is that a “useful action brings about good, pleasure, advantage or benefit

For utilitarians, a  morally good choice is one that brings about the greatest good for the greatest number of people

John Stuart Mill  (ethics)- liked utilitarianist ideas but was also critical of them – needed more than just weighing pros and cons – not all pleasures are equal. Aesthetic and Intellectual pleasures are of greater value than physical pleasure. challenged the idea that consequences are not important by arguing that testing a moral choice by asking whether it should become moral law is measuring the consequences

Ayn Rand  (ethics)- Although egoism may seem like simple selfishness, Rand asserts that “there is no such thing as ‘society’ ... only individual men” therefore acting in one’s own interest is the only logical path – rational egoism. Acting in one’s own interest does not preclude helping others; people will help if they get something in return, and this is essential human nature. As an example “do unto others as you would have them do unto you” could be considered a rational egoist principle: you act in such a way as  you believe will come back around to you. Rational Egoism is similar to social contract theories which assert that morally acceptable conduct is implicitly or explicitly agreed upon by members of society – social arrangements are in everyone’s best interests therefore self-interest supports social morality

What are ethics - comes from the greek word ethos, meaning character. Often seen as synonymous with morals and can be defined as “moral philosophy” study what good/bad character traits are.

What is the difference between morals and ethics - ethics, coming from greek word ethos, means character. Morals, coming from latin word mores, meaning custom or habit. Some philosophers define morals as customary beliefs of how people should act and ethics as the study of those beliefs

What are the three categories of normative ethics - theories of action, theories of character, theories of value. 

What is metaethics - examining the meaning of terms terms used while exploring ethical questions and the methods used to carry out this exploration. 

Identify and give examples of absolutists, universalists, and relativists -  ethical absolutes believe there is a universal moral code that must always be followed; killing is always wrong. Ethical universal believe that moral code is not absolute and circumstances matter; killing is not always wrong, it depends on the circumstances. Ethical relativists believe that ethical norms are socially determined and conform to the time period and people in the society; the morality of killing is not absolute and depends on social, cultural, and individual context.

What is a good life - responses from socrates, stoicism, confucianism, taoism, ubuntu, aanishnabe

What is a good person - responses aristotle, aquinus, ross, shklar, existentialists, kierkagard, nietzsche, and sartre

What is the right thing to do - perspectives from kant, utilitarians, ayn rand, emotivists, intuitionvists, feminists, egoists

12. Can scientifc theories be proven/ is science objective - 

Thomas Kuhn - 

• coined the term paradigm shift. He believed that “normal science” is simply puzzle solving. 

• Scientists work in a paradigm they’ve been trained in. they push the boundaries of that paradigm, but never question it. 

• Science is nothing more  than another lens we use to view the world, making it no more valid than other types of knowledge. 

Materialist/scientific realist response -

•  believe that theories are able to be objectively true because the objects used for study and theorizing are separate from the scientists themselves. They base this on two claims 

1. Materiel reality exists apart from people’s mental concept of it

2. Humans have the ability to know what exists and what is true about the laws and theories surrounding it

Karl poppers response -

•  believed that ongoing effort to disprove and rebuild what we think we know about scientific theory is at the core of scientific method. 

• Science is the search for truth. Scientific theories can never be proven they can only avoid falsification

Logical positivist response

• Science is the systematic accumulation of observable facts. Therefore knowledge is amassed

• Statement of fact are meant to meaningful only if they are true by definition or have verifiable evidence

• Statements that cannot be verified are meaningless, however, very few statements meet this criteria

Heisenburg principle

• Measures of certain systems can’t be made without affecting the systems