Motivation and Emotion

Motivation and Emotion

Chapter 9

Defining Motivation

  • Motivation: The process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.

  • Extrinsic Motivation: A type of motivation where a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person.

  • Intrinsic Motivation: A type of motivation where a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in an internal manner.

Early Approaches to Understanding Motivation

Instincts and the Evolutionary Approach (1 of 3)

  • Instincts: Biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and nonhuman animals.

  • Pros and Cons of Instinct Approaches:

    • Fail to explain human behavior comprehensively.

    • Convinced psychologists that some human behavior is driven by hereditary factors.

Needs and Drives (2 of 3)

  • Need: A requirement of some material that is essential for the survival of the organism.

  • Drive: Psychological tension and physical arousal that arises when there is a need, motivating the organism to act to fulfill the need and reduce tension.

  • Drive-Reduction Theory: Approach to motivation stating behavior arises from internal drives pushing the organism to satisfy physiological needs, thus reducing tension and arousal.

Primary and Acquired Drives (3 of 3)

  • Primary Drives: Involve needs of the body, such as hunger and thirst.

  • Acquired (Secondary) Drives: Learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval.

  • Homeostasis: The tendency of the body to maintain a steady state.

    • Example: Increased hunger (a state of imbalance) prompts a person to eat, which increases glucose levels, reducing feelings of hunger. This cycle repeats after a period without eating.

Psychological Needs

McClelland’s Theory (1 of 2)

  • Need for Affiliation (nAff): The need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others.

  • Need for Power (nPow): The need to have control or influence over others.

  • Need for Achievement (nAch): Involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining goals, not only realistic but also challenging ones.

Personality and nAch (2 of 2)

  • Carol Dweck’s Self-Theory of Motivation:

    • The need for achievement is closely linked to personality factors including self-view.

    • Locus of Control: The tendency for people to assume they either have control (internal locus) or do not have control (external locus) over events and consequences in their lives.

    • Internal Locus of Control: Individuals who believe they have control over their life outcomes.

    • External Locus of Control: Individuals who feel their lives are controlled by powerful others, luck, or fate.

Arousal and Incentive Approaches

Stimulus Motive and Arousal Theory (1 of 2)

  • Stimulus Motive: A motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity.

  • Arousal Theory: This theory of motivation suggests that individuals seek to maintain an optimal level of tension by adjusting stimulation levels.

    • Sensation Seeker: Someone who requires higher levels of arousal than the average person.

  • Incentives: External stimuli that attract or lure individuals into action.

  • Incentive Approaches: Theories of motivation that explain behavior as a response to external stimuli and their rewarding properties.

Humanistic Approaches

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1 of 3)

  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Several hierarchical levels of needs must be met before reaching self-actualization.

    • Self-Actualization: A seldom-reached point where individuals have sufficiently satisfied lower needs and achieving full personal potential.

    • Peak Experiences: Times in life where self-actualization is temporarily achieved.

Levels of Needs (Maslow’s Hierarchy)

  • Individuals must first fulfill deficiency needs before addressing higher-level needs of self-actualization.

  • Deficiency Needs:

    • Physiological

    • Safety

    • Love and Belongingness

    • Esteem

  • Higher-Level Needs: Self-actualization and transcendence.

  • Cognitive and Aesthetic Needs: Included in the hierarchy but may exist parallel to other needs.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (2 of 3)

  • Self-Determination Theory: A human motivation theory asserting the social context influences the type of motivation.

    • Autonomy: The need to control one’s own behavior and goals.

    • Competence: The need to master challenging tasks.

    • Relatedness: The need for intimacy, belonging, and security in relationships.

Universal Needs Across Cultures (3 of 3)

  • Autonomy, competence, and relatedness are essential in various cultures.

  • Individualistic Cultures: Stress individual needs over group needs, emphasizing independence and self-reliance.

  • Collectivistic Cultures: Emphasize social ties, interdependence, and cooperation.

Hunger and Eating

Why People Eat

  • Satisfying hunger is a primary need; eating is also a source of entertainment for many individuals.

Physiological and Social Components of Hunger (1 of 2)

Hormonal Influences

  • Insulin: Hormone secreted by the pancreas that reduces blood glucose levels.

  • Glucagon: Hormone secreted by the pancreas that increases blood glucose levels.

  • Leptin: Hormone that signals the hypothalamus to reduce appetite and increase the feeling of fullness.

Role of the Hypothalamus

  • Hypothalamus: Responds to glucose and insulin levels.

    • Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH): May stop the eating response when glucose levels rise.

    • Lateral Hypothalamus (LH): Influences the onset of eating when insulin levels decrease.

Components of Hunger (2 of 2)

  • Weight Set Point: The specific weight level the body aims to maintain.

  • Metabolism: The rate at which energy is burned; exercise impacts this as well.

  • Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): The energy burn rate while resting.

  • Social Components: Influences of social cues, food preferences, and cultural factors on hunger.

Obesity

  • Obesity: A condition of being overweight with excess body fat, often defined by body mass index (BMI).

  • Contributing Factors:

    • Heredity, including genetic factors that influence brain structure and cognitive function linked to food responsivity and delayed gratification.

    • Overeating.

    • Stress.

    • Metabolism.

Emotion

  • Human beings experience emotions that are deeply connected to thinking and actions.

The Three Elements of Emotion

Definition and Characteristics (1 of 4)

  • Emotion: The "feeling" aspect of consciousness characterized by:

    • Certain physical arousal.

    • Certain behavior revealing the emotion to the outside world.

    • Inner awareness of feelings.

Physiology of Emotion (2 of 4)

  • Different emotions may be linked to distinct physiological reactions.

  • Brain Regions Involved:

    • Amygdala: Associated with both fear and pleasure; plays a key role in fear conditioning.

    • Emotional stimuli travel to the amygdala via a fast "low road" and a slower "high road".

Low Road and High Road (3 of 4)

  • Upon exposure to an emotionally provoking stimulus, neural signals take two pathways to the amygdala:

    • Low Road: A faster, simpler pathway beneath the cortex, facilitating quick responses to stimuli.

    • High Road: Involves cortical pathways, allowing for recognition of the threat, which leads to more controlled emotional responses.

    • Example: Response to a snake versus a bungee cord as perception evolves from quick danger signal to conscious consideration.

Brain Regions in Emotion (4 of 4)

  • Other involved brain areas:

    • Frontal Lobes: Positive emotions are linked to the left frontal lobe, and negative emotions to the right.

    • The right hemisphere interprets emotions.

    • Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Lateral Orbitofrontal Cortex: Active in emotional control.

Emotional Expression

  • Facial expressions vary across cultures, though some are universal.

  • Display Rules: Learned methods of controlling the display of emotions socially; differ across individualistic and collectivistic cultures as well as by gender.

  • Universal basic emotions include:

    • Anger

    • Fear

    • Disgust

    • Happiness

    • Surprise

    • Sadness

    • Although triggers for these emotions may vary by culture, the expressions remain remarkably similar.

Subjective Experience

  • Labeling Emotion: Interpreting subjective feelings by assigning a label which is influenced by language and culture.

Early Theories of Emotion

Common Sense Theory (1 of 5)

  • Emotion leads to a physical reaction, followed by a behavioral reaction.

James-Lange Theory (2 of 5)

  • A physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion.

    • Developed by William James and Carl Lange.

Cannon-Bard Theory (3 of 5)

  • Physiological reaction and emotion occur simultaneously.

    • Founded by Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis (4 of 5)

  • Suggests that facial expressions provide feedback to the brain regarding the emotion expressed, intensifying that emotion.

    • Changing one's facial expression can alter emotional state; e.g., smiling can bring about feelings of happiness, while frowning can result in sadness.

Cognitive Theories of Emotion (5 of 5)

  • Cognitive Arousal Theory (Two-Factor Theory): Both physical arousal and the labeling/appraisal of that arousal must occur before experiencing the emotion.

    • Developed by Schachter and Singer.

  • Cognitive-Mediational Theory: A stimulus must be interpreted by a person for a physical response and emotional reaction to ensue, with cognitive appraisal mediating the process.

    • Developed by Lazarus.

Comparison of Theories of Emotion

Common Sense Theory

  • "I’m shaking because I’m afraid."

James-Lange Theory

  • "I’m afraid because I’m shaking."

Cannon-Bard Theory

  • "I’m shaking and feeling afraid at the same time."

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

  • Influences on feelings derived from the facial expressions.

Cognitive Arousal Theory

  • "This snarling dog is dangerous and that makes me feel afraid."

Cognitive-Mediational Theory

  • Appraisal of the snake leads to felt fear- "The snarling dog is dangerous."

Applying Psychology to Everyday Life

Time Management

  • Importance of using a time and task-management system to ensure tasks and commitments are effectively completed.

  • Discussion on the effectiveness of various systems and potential negative consequences of not using a time-tracking system.