3.8 test

Operant conditioning: a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to

recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

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Even though classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both types of

associative learning, they have clear differences.

In classical conditioning, the association occurs between stimuli and involves

respondent behavior: involuntary, automatic responses.

Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, that operates on the

environment. These behaviors can be increased when reinforcement follows,

or decreased when followed by a punishment.

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LT 3.8-1 Explain operant conditioning.

LT 3.8-2 Identify Skinner and explain how operant behavior is

reinforced and shaped.

Law of effect: Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or

reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by

unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely.

Operant chamber: in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as

a Skinner box) containing a bar or key an animal can manipulate to obtain a food

or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or

key pecking.

Reinforcement: in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the

behavior it follows.

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LT 3.8-2 Identify Skinner and explain how operant behavior is

reinforced and shaped.

Shaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior

toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Discriminative stimulus: in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a

response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not

associated with reinforcement).

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B.F. Skinner became modern behaviorism’s most influential and

controversial figure.

He built on the work of E.L. Thorndike, using the Law of Effect as a starting

point for his theory on operant conditioning.

Skinner’s early studies used pigeons and rats receiving reinforcers for

increasingly performing a desired behavior. They did these behaviors inside an

operant chamber, where other variables were controlled to show a

strengthening of response if a reinforcer followed.

Shaping would gradually train the animals to move towards a desired

behavior, such as pressing a lever in successive approximations, rewarding the

rat in for small steps towards the ultimate operant behavior.

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LT 3.8-2 Identify Skinner and explain how operant behavior is

reinforced and shaped.

B.F. Skinner became modern behaviorism’s most influential and

controversial figure.

Pigeons were trained to respond only after seeing a human face and not

other pictures. The face became a discriminative stimuli that signaled when

the desired behavior should be done.

Sometimes the wrong behaviors are reinforced such as when we give into a

temper tantrum of a young child, they learn to continue that behavior

because it yields a reinforcement.

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LT 3.8-2 Identify Skinner and explain how operant behavior is

reinforced and shaped.

Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e

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Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e

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LT 3.8-3 Explain the difference between positive reinforcement and

negative reinforcement, and explain the basic types of reinforcers.

Positive reinforcement: increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus.

A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response,

strengthens the response.

Negative reinforcement: increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive

stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response,

strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Primary reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a

biological need.

Conditioned reinforcer: a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its

association with a primary reinforcer. (Also known as a secondary reinforcer.)

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Both positive and negative reinforcers can increase behaviors which they

follow.

Positive reinforcement strengthens a response by presenting a pleasurable

stimulus, such as a giving someone a compliment or food.

Negative reinforcement also strengthens a response, but does so by removing

or decreasing an aversive stimulus such as chores or withdrawal symptoms.

Negative reinforcement is not punishment, as it also increases operant

responding.

Both types of reinforcement can work together to increase behavior, such as

studying for an exam, which could get you a better grade and also reduce

anxiety.

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LT 3.8-3 Explain the difference between positive reinforcement and

negative reinforcement, and explain the basic types of reinforcers.

Both positive and negative reinforcers can increase behaviors which they

follow.

The value of reinforcers can be unlearned such as the desire for food. Some

reinforcers value has to be learned such as money, which is valuable because

it is associated with other primary reinforcement. These are called secondary

or conditioned reinforcers.

Humans can respond to delayed reinforcement such as a paycheck at the end

of the week or a trophy at the end of a season.

Most delayed reinforcement is more valuable, and being able to wait for the

bigger reward is beneficial as proven by Walter Mischel’s marshmallow study.

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LT 3.8-3 Explain the difference between positive reinforcement and

negative reinforcement, and explain the basic types of reinforcers.

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LT 3.8-4 Explain how different reinforcement schedules affect

behavior.

Reinforcement schedule: a pattern that defines how often a desired response

will be reinforced.

Continuous reinforcement schedule: reinforcing the desired response every

time it occurs.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: reinforcing a response only part

of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater

resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

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LT 3.8-4 Explain how different reinforcement schedules affect

behavior.

Fixed-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that

reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that

reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that

reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule

that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

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Reinforcement schedules can vary and affect the operant behavior differently.

If a reinforcer is given after every occurrence of the response, then you are

using continuous reinforcement. Responses will increase the fastest using this

approach, but also become extinct the quickest.

To increase resistance to extinction, a partial reinforcement schedule should

be used. Learning may be slower but will last longer.

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LT 3.8-4 Explain how different reinforcement schedules affect

behavior.

Reinforcement schedules can vary and affect the operant behavior differently.

Two schedules are based on the number of responses needed to attain the

reinforcement: Fixed-ratio, where a known number of responses will receive

a reinforcer, or variable-ratio, where an unpredictable number of responses

will get the reinforcement.

Two schedules are based on passage of time: Fixed-interval, where a known

amount of time must pass before reinforcement, or variable-interval, where

the amount of time is unknown.

Of these, variable-ratio schedules show the most resistance to extinction.

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LT 3.8-4 Explain how different reinforcement schedules affect

behavior.

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LT 3.8-5 Explain the difference between punishment and negative

reinforcement, and explain how punishment affects behavior.

Punishment: an event that tends to decrease the behavior it follows.

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Punishment does the opposite of reinforcement and decreases behaviors.

Punishment also comes in a variety; positive punishment decreases behavior by

presenting an aversive stimulus, and negative punishment does so by removing

a rewarding stimulus.

Psychologists believe that punishment may not remove an undesired behavior,

but rather just suppress it.

The desired behavior does not automatically replace the punished behavior.

Punishment can teach discrimination among situations, and fear.

Physical punishment might increase aggressions, and model violence as a way

to get desired results and cope with problems.

Psychologist emphasize using reinforcement with children, but if punishment is

necessary, then negative punishments are more useful than positive ones.

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LT 3.8-5 Explain the difference between punishment and negative

reinforcement, and explain how punishment affects behavior.

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Skinner’s ideas were both influential and controversial.

Skinner discounted the role of internal thoughts and emotions in shaping

behavior.

He encouraged the use of operant conditioning to shape desired behavior in

workplaces, schools, and relationships. Some believed this to be manipulative

and dehumanizing.

This lack of free will did not sit well with all psychologists, eventually leading to

the development of the humanistic perspective.

Operant conditioning principles are applied to everyday life in many ways.

At school, Skinner’s ideas have been applied to individualized learning plans,

where students move through the content and skills at their own pace and get

reinforced for doing a good job.

In sports, shaping with successive approximations is often used to teach proper

techniques, which results in faster skill development.

In computer programs, AI programs learn much faster than humans in

responding to reinforcement and avoiding punishments.

LT 3.8-7 Explain ways to apply operant conditioning principles in

everyday life.

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Operant conditioning principles are applied to everyday life in many ways.

At work, both extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcers are used to increase

productivity. Clear goals and immediate reinforcement seem to work best.

In parenting, often punishments are used to change behavior, and undesired

behavior can get reinforced. Parents should try to use reinforcement for desired

behaviors, and negative punishments if needed, to reduce undesired behaviors.

To change your own behavior, set realistic, measurable goals. Decide on a plan,

monitor your progress, and reinforce desired behaviors. With acquisition, slowly

reduce rewards as the behavior becomes more permanent.

LT 3.8-7 Explain ways to apply operant conditioning principles in

everyday life.

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LT 3.8-8 Explain how biological constraints affect operant conditioning.

Instinctive drift: the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to

biologically predisposed patterns.

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As with classical conditioning, operant conditioning also has some biological constraints.

We most easily learn and retain behaviors that reflect our biological

predispositions and are naturally adaptive.

Reinforcers that are primary and connected to our survival influence behavior

more strongly, such as using food to increase a behavior.

Our operantly conditioned behaviors that are unnatural will revert back to

biologically predisposed behaviors in a phenomenon known as instinctive drift.

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LT 3.8-8 Explain how biological constraints affect operant conditioning.

Both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are types of associative

learning.

Both involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and

discrimination.

Classical conditioning is attributed to Pavlov and operant conditioning to Skinner.

The association in classical conditioning is between the stimuli, and affects

respondent behaviors. In operant conditioning, the association is between the

behavior and its consequences, focused on operant behaviors.

LT 3.8-9 Explain the characteristics that distinguish operant conditioning

from classical conditioning.

Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e

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Myers/DeWall/Yost Hammer, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e

©2023 Worth/BFW Publishers