Learning

• Learning is described as a consequence of thinking rather than teaching.
• It occurs when individuals reflect on and choose to adopt new behaviors.

Meaning of Learning

• Learning is fundamentally characterized by the following:
  • It involves a change that can be either positive or negative.
  • The change in behavior must be relatively permanent.
  • Change must be acquired through experience; behavior change without any shift in thoughts or attitudes does not constitute learning.
  • Experience is essential for learning, which can occur through:
  • Direct practice
  • Observation
  • Indirect avenues such as reading
  • Learning arises from various forms of experiences, outcomes, observations, and education.

Theories of Learning

1. Classical Conditioning

Overview of Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
  • A Russian physiologist awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904.
  • Discovered key concepts such as conditioning, reinforcement, extinction, discrimination, generalization, and higher-order conditioning.
  • His findings underpin many learning theories.

Definition

• Classical Conditioning is defined as the process of modifying behavior so that a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, leading to an unconditioned response.
• The premise is that a physical event (stimulus) that does not inherently elicit a response can come to evoke that response through repeated associations with another stimulus that does elicit a reaction.

Ivan Pavlov’s Experiment

1. Before Condition
   • Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) → Unconditioned Response (Salivation)
   • Neutral Stimulus (Tuning Fork) → No Unconditioned Response
2. During Conditioning
   • Neutral Stimulus (Tuning Fork) paired with Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) → Response: Salivation
3. After Conditioning
   • Conditioned Stimulus (Tuning Fork) → Conditioned Response (Salivation)
   • No longer requires the unconditioned stimulus for the response.

Application of Classical Conditioning in Managing Employee Behavior

• Example Scenario:
  • Past negative experiences in a specific office could lead employees to feel uncomfortable when called to that space.
  • To manage this, avoid the triggering environment, or alternatively, create positive experiences associated with the space to help overwrite past negative responses.

2. Operant Conditioning

Overview

• Burrhus Fredrick Skinner (1904-1990)
  • Considered a key American psychologist with influence still seen in areas like behavior modification and learning technology.

Definition

• Operant Conditioning involves modifying behavior through the application of positive or negative consequences following a specific behavior.
• It is established on the idea that behavior is a function of its consequences, indicating that individuals learn to repeat actions to obtain desired outcomes or avoid undesirable ones.
• The likelihood of a behavior being repeated is influenced by reinforcement or its absence.

3. Social Learning Theory

• Albert Bandura's Contributions
  • Studied the foundational aspects of human learning and the tendency of both children and adults to imitate observed behaviors.
• Social Learning Theory emphasizes:
  • Learning by observing others and the outcomes of their actions (vicarious learning).
  • Significant sources of models include parents, teachers, peers, media, and managers.

4. Cognitive Theory

• Assumes individuals are active participants in the learning process.

Key Principles:

• Individuals draw on past experiences as a foundation for current behavior.
• They make conscious choices regarding their behavior.
• They recognize the consequences of their choices and assess these consequences concerning prior learning, which influences future behavior.

Principles of Learning

Reinforcement

• Aim is to develop or strengthen desirable behavior.
• Types:
  • Positive Reinforcement: Involves the addition of a rewarding stimulus following a behavior.
  • Negative Reinforcement: Involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus when a desired behavior occurs, thus encouraging repetition of that behavior.

Punishment

• Objective is to eliminate or weaken undesirable behavior.
• May lead to unintended negative outcomes such as increased hostility or demoralization.

Extinction

• A method to weaken behavior by ignoring it or providing no reinforcement.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Overview

• A schedule of reinforcement is important for understanding behavioral modification through rewards.

Types:

1. Continuous Reinforcement
   • Reward given after each desired behavior.
   • Results in fast learning but rapid extinction (e.g., verbal compliments).
2. Fixed-Interval Schedule
   • Reward given at set time intervals.
   • Results in average and irregular performance, leading to rapid extinction (e.g., monthly salary).
3. Variable-Interval Schedule
   • Reward provided at unpredictable time intervals.
   • Results in moderately high and stable performance, with slow extinction (e.g., pop quizzes).
4. Fixed-Ratio Schedule
   • Reward given after a fixed number of responses.
   • Results in high and stable performance but rapid extinction (e.g., piece-rate pay).
5. Variable-Ratio Schedule
   • Reward given after a variable number of responses.
   • Results in very high performance and slow extinction (e.g., commissioned sales).