Ethnic Studies: Asian Immigrants
ETHNIC STUDIES: The Asian Immigrants
Historical Context
Pre-19th Century Contact
Archaeological finds indicate that Japanese had contact with Peru and Ecuador around 3000 B.C.
Chinese settlements in Mexico occurred during the Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1664).
Chinese sailors were present on U.S. ships in the early 1800s, alongside Black sailors.
The first U.S. consul assigned outside the Western Hemisphere was located in Canton, 1794.
Immigration Patterns
Chinese immigrants arrived during the Gold Rush; Japanese, Koreans, and Filipinos immigrated later (late 1800s).
Treatment of Asian immigrants:
Expulsion from mining camps
Forbidden to enter schools
Denied the right to testify in court
Barred from citizenship
Occasional murders with unclear frequency and specifics.
BACKGROUND: Contributions of Asian Immigrants
Cultural Impacts
Chinese immigrants introduced their culture and traditional institutions, leading to the establishment of Chinatowns, which became significant for tourism and cultural preservation.
Micro-level Factors
Clans (tsu): Based on family names; served as a source of identity.
Benevolent Associations: Organized by individuals from the same district to support one another.
Secret Societies (tongs): Formed based on common interests; instrumental in community assistance and identity.
Family Life
Strong parent-child relationships characterized by parental sacrifices.
Emphasis on caring for elderly parents and maintaining an extended family system.
Family debts were collective; shame or dishonor to the family is considered severe.
Public displays of emotion (including shame, grief, embarrassment, or affection) are generally avoided.
Marriage Practices
Marriages are determined by family considerations, status, and potential.
The social standing of the bride is often evaluated in relation to the mother-in-law.
Religious Practices
Religion is important but primarily represents a way of life rather than traditional worship.
Educational Values
Education is highly valued as a means to enhance family status.
SOCIOHISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Initial Intent of Immigration
Many immigrants arrived as sojourners with the intention of a short stay (mid-1800s).
A significant social problem from the mid-1800s to the 1940s was the shortage of women among immigrants.
Demographics
Marital status: Approximately half of Chinese immigrants were married.
Male/female ratio:
1858: 1 (1858),
2,106: 1 (1880),
695: 1 (1920),
Less than 1.5: 1 (1960).
Consequences
The gender imbalance led to increased prostitution and the stereotyping of Asians as morally depraved.
Japanese immigrants found ways to circumvent immigration restrictions, often through “Picture Brides.”
THE CHINESE IMMIGRATION EXPERIENCE
Trade Relations
The U.S. established trade relations with China by 1785, fostering lucrative commerce.
Protestant missionaries began arriving in China after 1807.
Impact of Wars
Wars such as the Anglo-Chinese War and the Boxer Rebellion altered American perceptions of Chinese immigrants.
Demographics
Most Chinese immigrants were farmers, artisans, craftsmen, political exiles, or refugees.
They predominantly remained within their own communities, facing harshly framed stereotypes due to racial and cultural differences.
Economic Contributions
After the Gold Rush, Chinese laborers primarily worked as railroad construction workers, ranch hands, farm laborers, domestic servants, and in unskilled jobs.
They accepted harsh working conditions for lower pay, constituting a significant portion of California's labor force by 1860.
By 1860, foreign-born individuals comprised about 38% of California's population, with Chinese immigrants making up about 9% of the total population and 25% of the labor force.
Chinese workers managed to sustain themselves at significantly lower costs than their White counterparts.
Impact of the Civil War
The Civil War caused a shortage of goods, which stimulated growth in West Coast manufacturing.
SOCIETAL REACTIONS TO CHINESE IMMIGRATION
Chinese Immigration Statistics
A substantial influx of Chinese immigrants occurred from 1820-1882; notably, 11,890 entered in 1881 and 39,579 in 1882.
Racism and Violence
Racist violence existed against the Chinese, comparable to that against Blacks and Irish in their respective regions.
Notable incidents:
1871: 21 Chinese killed in Los Angeles.
1880: Anti-Chinese riot in Denver.
1885: 28 Chinese killed in Rock Springs.
Legal Discrimination
Chinese were expelled from trade unions and denied the ability to testify against Whites in court.
Four-Stage Response to Discrimination
Involuntary responses to prejudice and discrimination.
Defensive insulation, developing mutual empathy and protection.
Voluntary segregation leading to Chinatowns and struggles.
Gradual assimilation into the mainstream society.
Legal and Social Struggles
The Chinese community petitioned for equal rights, achieving successes such as the right for their children to attend public schools and desegregation efforts.
Chinese merchants established businesses that did not significantly compete with White-owned businesses, catering primarily to their own community.
Intermarriage with Blacks was found in some Chinese communities, leading to further segregation due to existing laws against miscegenation.
Demographic Trends
By 1890, only 2% of the Chinese population in America was born in the U.S.
RECENT PATTERNS IN IMMIGRATION
Changes in Immigration Policies
In 1943, the ban on Chinese immigration was lifted, subsequently introducing a quota system.
From 1965 onwards, the Chinese-American population increased rapidly, reaching 806,000 by 1970.
Chinese became the third most common language spoken in the U.S.
Bipolar Occupational Distribution:
30% in professional roles (15% for Whites)
24% in low-skilled jobs (7% for Whites)
THE JAPANESE IMMIGRATION EXPERIENCE
Continued Immigration
Japanese immigrants arrived in the U.S. after the 1882 exclusion of Chinese immigrants.
Generational Differences:
Issei: First-generation Japanese immigrants, did not gain citizenship until 1952.
Nissei: Second-generation Japanese born in America, automatically became citizens.
Historical Events
The Japanese gained respect after defeating Russia in the war over the Kurile Islands in 1907, resulting in better treatment than the Chinese.
Economic Contributions
By the early 1900s, Japanese farmers owned 1% of California’s farmland, yet their farming methods resulted in contributing 10% of market produce.
The U.S. Congress passed the Alien Land Law in 1913, preventing non-citizens from owning land, which greatly affected Japanese farmers.
Picture Brides
The process of “Picture Brides” allowed Japanese men to send photo biographies to marriage brokers in Japan, where families would send pictures of eligible daughters, resulting in arranged marriages that facilitated entry to the U.S. for brides.
Exclusion Policies
In 1924, Congress introduced an outright ban on all Japanese immigration.
World War II Impact
Following the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941, 110,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly removed from their homes to “Relocation Camps,” sometimes as far east as Wisconsin.
The 442nd Infantry Regiment, an all-Japanese unit, fought valiantly in WWII, becoming the most decorated U.S. combat unit, with a casualty rate of 300%.
Post-War Changes
Occupation of Japan post-WWII introduced rapid cultural changes including westernization and industrialization.
Japanese war brides who married U.S. soldiers faced hostility but intermarriage eventually became accepted.
Social structures within Japanese culture contributed to low rates of delinquency, mental illness, crime, and suicide.
By 1980, the Japanese American population reached 701,000, with a significant number residing in Hawaii or California.
Cultural Identity
The Sansei, or third-generation Japanese-Americans born after WWII, showed increased interest in cultural heritage and questioned parental experiences related to wartime relocation.
THE PILIPINOS (FILIPINOS)
Colonial History
Pilipinos prefer the term “Pilipinos” over “Filipinos.”
The Philippines became a U.S. possession in 1898 and gained independence in 1947.
They were classified ambiguously in terms of citizenship: not citizens but not aliens (under the 1790 law) with no immigration quotas applicable.
Demographics
The vast majority of those immigrating to the U.S. were males, predominantly working in low-paying domestic service jobs.
Naturalization
In 1942, legislation allowed Pilipinos to become naturalized citizens.
Immigration has significantly increased since 1965, reaching 775,000 by 1980, with many on the West Coast.
THE KOREANS
Immigrant Experience
Korean immigrants had experiences parallel to those of Chinese and Japanese immigrants.
Historically, they faced domination by neighboring Eastern powers, mainly Russia.
Significant Korean immigration occurred post-WWII, leading to 355,000 U.S. residents by 1980, predominantly Christians in professional or managerial positions but still facing social distance challenges.
THE VIETNAMESE
Cultural Origins
Vietnamese culture has ancient origins predating Christ.
Initially unknown to Americans until the 1960s; grouped into the broader categories of Southeast Asia or French Indo-China.
Post-War Immigration
Following the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, 127,000 Vietnamese refugees fled, primarily those in middle and upper societal layers.
Many were educated and skilled professionals, but upon arriving in the U.S., they took available low-wage jobs.
Job Market Assimilation
American objections arose to perceived job competition from Vietnamese immigrants.
Resettlement was facilitated by support from communities and family sponsors, often within seven months.
Demographic Study
A 1978 study of 350 Vietnamese families found that:
76% were male-headed.
Average age was 37.
68% were employed in full-time jobs, contributing positively to the economy rather than becoming welfare burdens.
Continued Immigration Trends
In 1979, another wave of Southeast Asian “boat people” began to arrive in the U.S., totaling approximately 200,000.
Cultural Differentiation
Many Vietnamese believe in predestination and utilize horoscopes.
Those with higher education levels tend to transition more easily into American society.
Higher incidences of mental illness compared to other Asian groups, attributed to psychological stress and a feeling of lack of control over their destiny.
Women report higher levels of depression, anxiety, and tension compared to men.