Untitled Flashcards Set

Chapter 1: Types of Communication

1. Social Reality

   • Definition: The understanding that communication helps to create and maintain the social world around us, shaping how we interact, perceive, and behave in society.

   • Contextual Usage: Social reality refers to the norms, expectations, and relationships that form the fabric of society, shaped by communication.

   • Example: The way people use social media to form opinions about political events is an example of social reality being influenced by communication.

2. Face-to-Face Communication

   • Definition: Direct, in-person communication where participants can observe nonverbal cues such as body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice.

   • Contextual Usage: Face-to-face communication is often considered the most effective form of communication because it allows for immediate feedback and a richer exchange of information.

   • Example: A job interview conducted in person is a form of face-to-face communication.

3. Mediated Communication

   • Definition: Communication that occurs through a medium such as the internet, phone, or television, rather than in person.

   • Contextual Usage: Mediated communication can be synchronous (real-time) or asynchronous (delayed), and can be less personal than face-to-face communication.

   • Example: Sending an email or participating in a video conference are forms of mediated communication.

4. Interpersonal Communication

   • Definition: Communication between two people, often characterized by an exchange of ideas, thoughts, and emotions.

   • Contextual Usage: Interpersonal communication can be face-to-face or mediated and is the basis for building relationships.

   • Example: A conversation between friends about weekend plans is an example of interpersonal communication.

5. Intrapersonal Communication

   • Definition: Communication that occurs within an individual, such as self-talk or internal thought processes.

   • Contextual Usage: Intrapersonal communication involves reflecting on one’s thoughts, decisions, and emotions.

   • Example: A person thinking through a decision about a career change is engaging in intrapersonal communication.

6. Small Group Communication

   • Definition: Communication that occurs between a small group of people, typically 3-15 individuals, working together towards a common goal.

   • Contextual Usage: Small group communication often involves a dynamic exchange of ideas, opinions, and decisions.

   • Example: A team of coworkers discussing a project during a meeting is an example of small group communication.

7. Public Communication

   • Definition: Communication where one person addresses a large audience, such as a public speech or lecture.

   • Contextual Usage: Public communication involves delivering messages to a broader audience with little to no direct interaction with the audience.

   • Example: A politician giving a speech to a crowd at a rally is an example of public communication.

8. Mass Communication

   • Definition: Communication that reaches a large, widespread audience, often through media channels like television, radio, or newspapers.

   • Contextual Usage: Mass communication typically involves one-way communication from a source to a large number of people.

   • Example: A news broadcast on national television is an example of mass communication.

9. Masspersonal Communication

   • Definition: A blend of mass communication and interpersonal communication, often through social media where individuals interact with large audiences.

• Contextual Usage: Masspersonal communication allows people to share personal information with a broad audience, blurring the lines between private and public communication.

• Example: Posting a personal update on Facebook is an example of masspersonal communication.

Metaphors to Describe Communication

• Definition: Metaphors that are used to simplify or explain complex communication processes, often portraying communication as something tangible or physical.

• Contextual Usage: Communication metaphors help us understand abstract concepts by comparing them to familiar objects or processes.

• Example: Describing communication as a "bridge" can highlight how it connects people across distances and gaps in understanding.

Communication Competence

• Definition: The ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in various contexts, considering the audience, message, and situation.

• Contextual Usage: Communication competence involves not just what is communicated but how it is communicated—both verbal and nonverbal cues are important.

• Example: A skilled negotiator demonstrates communication competence by adapting their style to the audience and context while maintaining clarity and respect.

Ethical Communication

• Definition: Communication that is honest, fair, and respectful of others, considering the moral implications of messages and actions.

• Contextual Usage: Ethical communication involves transparency, accuracy, and respect for all individuals, avoiding manipulation or harm.

• Example: A journalist reporting facts without sensationalizing or distorting the truth is practicing ethical communication.

Communication and Connection

• Definition: The idea that communication fosters connections between individuals, groups, and society by creating shared meaning and understanding.

• Contextual Usage: Communication is not just about exchanging information; it's about building relationships and creating bonds through meaningful interactions.

• Example: A family dinner where everyone shares their experiences is an example of how communication fosters connection.

Chapter 3: Verbal Communication

• Definition: Communication that uses words, either spoken or written, to convey a message.

• Contextual Usage: Verbal communication is central to human interaction and can take place in both formal and informal contexts.

• Example: A classroom lecture or a casual conversation between friends are both forms of verbal communication.

Coding and Language

• Definition: Coding refers to the process of transforming ideas into understandable messages, often using language as the "code" for meaning.

• Contextual Usage: Coding is essential for conveying thoughts through language. Miscommunication can occur if the code is misunderstood or not interpreted correctly.

• Example: When someone says, “I’ll call you,” they are coding the message that they will make a phone call.

Symbols and Referent

• Definition: Symbols are words, sounds, or gestures that stand for something else. A referent is the actual object or concept the symbol represents.

• Contextual Usage: The connection between symbols and their referents can vary across cultures, which is why certain symbols may have different meanings.

• Example: The word "tree" is a symbol, and the referent is the actual tree in nature that it represents.

Triangle of Meaning

• Definition: A model that illustrates the relationship between a symbol (word), the referent (the thing it stands for), and the thought or reference (the mental concept associated with the symbol).

• Contextual Usage: This triangle shows how words (symbols) are connected to meanings through cognitive processes.

• Example: The word "dog" (symbol) relates to an actual dog (referent) but also evokes different ideas or images in different people’s minds (thought/reference).

Polysemy

• Definition: The phenomenon where a word or phrase has multiple meanings based on context.

• Contextual Usage: Polysemy shows the flexibility of language, where a single word can convey different meanings depending on how it’s used.

• Example: The word “bank” can refer to a financial institution, the side of a river, or a place for storing objects (like a memory bank).

Phonemes and Morphemes

• Definition:

  • Phonemes: The smallest unit of sound in a language that can change the meaning of a word.

  • Morphemes: The smallest unit of meaning in a language.

• Contextual Usage: Phonemes change words at the sound level (e.g., “bat” vs. “pat”), while morphemes change words at the meaning level (e.g., "un-" in "undo" or "-ed" in "walked").

• Example:

  • Phoneme example: The "p" in "pat" vs. the "b" in "bat."

  • Morpheme example: The word “unhappiness” has three morphemes: "un-" (prefix), "happy" (root), and "-ness" (suffix).

Semantics

• Definition: The study of meaning in language, including how words, phrases, and sentences are used to convey meaning.

• Contextual Usage: Semantics is concerned with the interpretation of words and how they relate to each other and the world around them.

• Example: The semantic difference between the words "childish" and "childlike" can change the tone of a sentence.

Denotative and Connotative Meanings

• Definition:

  • Denotative Meaning: The literal, dictionary definition of a word.

  • Connotative Meaning: The emotional or cultural associations that a word carries.

• Contextual Usage: Understanding both the denotative and connotative meanings is important for fully grasping communication.

• Example:

  • Denotative: “Home” means a place where someone lives.

  • Connotative: “Home” may evoke feelings of comfort, warmth, or family.

Syntax

• Definition: The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

• Contextual Usage: Syntax governs the structure of language, ensuring sentences are grammatically correct and convey the intended meaning.

• Example: The sentence "She loves him" follows the standard English syntax of subject-verb-object, while "Loves she him" does not.

Functions of Verbal Messages

• Definition: Verbal messages can serve several functions, including:

  • Informing: Providing information.

  • Persuading: Convincing others to adopt a belief or behavior.

  • Expressing feelings: Communicating emotions or states.

  • Building relationships: Establishing or reinforcing connections.

• Contextual Usage: Verbal messages are dynamic and serve various purposes depending on the context of communication.

• Example: A teacher might inform students about the lesson (informing), persuade them to study hard (persuading), and express enthusiasm about the topic (expressing feelings).

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

• Definition: The theory that language influences how individuals think and perceive the world.

• Contextual Usage: This hypothesis suggests that the structure and vocabulary of a language can shape cognitive processes and worldview.

• Example: People who speak languages with multiple words for "snow" may perceive and experience snow differently than those who only have one word for it.

Inclusive Language

• Definition: Language that avoids excluding or marginalizing groups of people, particularly those based on gender, race, or other characteristics.

• Contextual Usage: Inclusive language ensures that language reflects respect and equality for all individuals, avoiding biased or discriminatory terms.

• Example: Using "firefighter" instead of "fireman" is an example of inclusive language, as it doesn't assume gender.

Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM)

• Definition: A theory that emphasizes the role of communication in constructing meaning through interaction, considering the relationship between people and their environment.

• Contextual Usage: CMM explains how people co-create meaning through communication, often based on social and contextual factors.

• Example: A couple interpreting a disagreement may have different understandings of the conversation based on their relationship history and the context.

Levels of Interpretation (CMM)

• Definition: Different layers at which communication can be interpreted:

  • Content: The literal message.

  • Speech Act: The function of the message (e.g., asking, requesting, commanding).

  • Episode: The context in which the communication takes place.

  • Relationship: The nature of the relationship between the communicators.

  • Self: How the message relates to the self-concept of the individuals involved.

  • Culture: The cultural context and norms that influence interpretation.

  • Coordination: How well the communicators align their meanings.

  • Mystery: The unpredictable or unknowable aspects of communication.

• Contextual Usage: These levels help in understanding that communication isn't just about words but also how individuals interpret and respond to those words.

• Example: A person saying “We should go out” can be interpreted differently depending on the content (literal meaning), the relationship (friend or romantic partner), and the episode (a casual conversation or a serious discussion).

Constitutive and Regulative Rules

• Definition:

  • Constitutive Rules: Rules that define how we interpret and understand messages.

  • Regulative Rules: Rules that guide how we should act in communication situations.

• Contextual Usage: Both types of rules help guide behavior in communication and are based on social norms and expectations.

• Example:

  • Constitutive Rule: A handshake is a sign of greeting.

  • Regulative Rule: You should shake hands when meeting someone for the first time.

Cooperative Principle

• Definition: The principle that suggests people communicate in ways that are clear, truthful, and helpful in conversation, often summarized by Grice’s maxims: quantity, quality, relation, and manner.

• Contextual Usage: This principle ensures that conversations are effective and mutually understood.

• Example: If someone asks, "Do you have time to talk?" a cooperative response would be either a direct "Yes, I do," or "No, I am busy" rather than a vague or misleading reply.

“I” Statements

• Definition: Statements that express personal feelings, thoughts, and experiences in a way that takes ownership of one's emotions, avoiding blame or accusations.

• Contextual Usage: “I” statements are often used to communicate personal experiences and emotions without putting others on the defensive.

• Example: Instead of saying “You make me angry,” a person might say, “I feel upset when you interrupt me.”

Chapter 4: Functions of Nonverbal Communication

Repeating

• Definition: Nonverbal communication that mirrors or repeats a verbal message to reinforce the message.

• Contextual Usage: This function helps clarify the verbal message by reinforcing it with a corresponding nonverbal signal.

• Example: Pointing to a door while saying, "It's over there" is a repeating gesture that reinforces the spoken direction.

Accenting

• Definition: Nonverbal communication that emphasizes or highlights part of a verbal message.

• Contextual Usage: Accents focus attention on certain elements of a message, such as making a point clearer or more important.

• Example: Saying “I REALLY need your help” while emphasizing “really” with a strong tone of voice.

Conflicting

• Definition: When nonverbal communication contradicts a verbal message, leading to confusion or mixed signals.

• Contextual Usage: Conflicting communication can cause misunderstandings, as the verbal message may not align with the nonverbal cues.

• Example: Saying “I’m fine” while visibly crying or avoiding eye contact suggests the verbal message conflicts with the nonverbal behavior.

Complementing

• Definition: Nonverbal communication that enhances or adds to a verbal message to provide more meaning.

• Contextual Usage: Complementing adds richness to the verbal message, providing more context or detail.

• Example: Smiling while saying, “I’m so happy to see you” complements the positive verbal message with an appropriate facial expression.

Regulating

• Definition: Nonverbal cues used to control the flow of conversation or interaction.

• Contextual Usage: Regulation helps participants in communication understand when to speak or listen, or signals the end of a conversation.

• Example: Nodding your head while someone is speaking to indicate that they should continue.

Substituting

• Definition: Nonverbal communication that replaces a verbal message.

• Contextual Usage: When words aren’t necessary or when the nonverbal cue suffices on its own, substitution occurs.

• Example: Waving your hand to say “hello” instead of speaking the word.

Codes of Nonverbal Communication

Vocalics

• Definition: The use of vocal characteristics, such as tone, pitch, volume, and speech rate, to convey meaning.

• Contextual Usage: Vocalics help communicate emotions, intentions, or reactions, and can add layers to the spoken message.

• Example: Speaking in a higher-pitched voice may indicate excitement or urgency, while speaking slowly and softly can convey calmness or seriousness.

Kinesics and Gestures

• Definition: Kinesics refers to body movements, and gestures are specific motions of the hands or body to express thoughts.

• Contextual Usage: Both kinesics and gestures convey messages nonverbally, and they can vary widely across cultures.
  Emblems: Gestures that have a specific, widely understood meaning.

  • Example: The “thumbs-up” gesture, which means approval or agreement.

• Illustrators: Gestures that help illustrate or emphasize what is being said.

  • Example: Using hand motions to describe the size or shape of something you're talking about.

• Affect Displays: Facial expressions or body movements that convey emotion.

  • Example: A smile, frown, or raised eyebrows to express happiness, sadness, or surprise.

• Regulators: Gestures that regulate the flow of conversation.

  • Example: Nodding your head to indicate you are listening or want the speaker to continue.

• Adapters: Gestures or body movements that satisfy personal needs or reduce tension.

  • Example: Rubbing your neck when you're feeling stressed or adjusting your clothes.

Proxemics

• Definition: The study of personal space and the physical distance between people during communication.

• Contextual Usage: Proxemics varies based on cultural norms, and the use of space can influence the quality of communication.

• Example: Standing very close to someone during a conversation in a small group could indicate intimacy, while standing further apart in a formal setting might suggest respect for personal space.

Environment and Chronemics

• Definition:

  • Environment: The physical surroundings that influence communication.

  • Chronemics: The study of time and how it affects communication, such as punctuality or the pacing of interactions.

• Contextual Usage: Both environmental factors and time perceptions influence how messages are received and interpreted.

• Example:

  • Environment: A quiet, well-lit room may promote thoughtful conversation, while a loud, crowded space might hinder communication.

  • Chronemics: Arriving on time for a business meeting shows professionalism, while arriving late can be perceived as disrespectful.

Facial Expressions, Eye Behavior, Haptics, Physical Appearance

• Definition: These are specific forms of nonverbal communication related to physical expressions and appearance.
  Facial Expressions: The use of facial movements to convey emotions or reactions.

  • Example: A frown to show confusion or dissatisfaction.

• Eye Behavior: The role of eye contact in communication, including looking, blinking, or gazing.

  • Example: Sustained eye contact can indicate attentiveness or confidence.

• Haptics: The study of touch as a form of communication.

  • Example: A handshake as a greeting or a pat on the back as encouragement.

• Physical Appearance: The way one’s appearance communicates certain messages about personality or status.

  • Example: Dressing formally for a job interview conveys professionalism and respect for the occasion.

Impression Management

• Definition: The process of controlling how others perceive us through nonverbal cues and communication.

• Contextual Usage: People consciously manage their nonverbal signals to create a desired impression, especially in social or professional settings.

• Example: Someone may use positive body language, like smiling and maintaining eye contact, during a job interview to appear friendly and confident.

Nonverbal Immediacy

• Definition: creating a sense of closeness through nonverbal signals.

• Contextual Usage: Nonverbal immediacy helps build rapport and connection between communicators.

• Example: Nodding, leaning forward, and maintaining eye contact during a conversation all signal interest and engagement.

Chapter 11: Speech Topic

• Definition: The subject or theme of a speech that the speaker intends to address.

• Contextual Usage: The speech topic helps guide the direction and content of the speech, determining what information and examples will be included.

• Example: A speech topic could be "The impact of social media on mental health."

General (Rhetorical) Purpose

• Definition: The broad goal of a speech, such as to inform, persuade, or entertain.

• Contextual Usage: The rhetorical purpose sets the tone and strategy of the speech and determines the overall approach.

• Example: A general purpose could be to persuade the audience to take action on an environmental issue.

Specific Purpose

• Definition: A clear, specific statement that outlines the goal of the speech in relation to the audience.

• Contextual Usage: The specific purpose breaks down the general purpose into a focused objective.

• Example: "To persuade my audience to recycle more frequently in order to reduce waste in our community."

Types of Presentations

Epideictic (Commemorative)

• Definition: A speech that celebrates or honors a person, event, or occasion.

• Contextual Usage: Epideictic speeches are often ceremonial and aim to praise, commemorate, or mourn.

• Example: A eulogy or a graduation speech.

Informative

• Definition: A speech designed to inform the audience about a particular subject or issue.

• Contextual Usage: Informative speeches aim to provide new knowledge, enhance understanding, or clarify complex topics.

• Example: A presentation explaining how renewable energy works.

Persuasive

• Definition: A speech intended to influence the audience’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors.

• Contextual Usage: Persuasive speeches aim to convince the audience to adopt a particular viewpoint or take specific action.

• Example: A speech advocating for voting in the next election.

Audience Analysis

Situational

• Definition: Analysis of the audience based on the immediate context of the speech, such as the time, place, and occasion.

• Contextual Usage: Understanding situational factors helps tailor the speech for the specific event.

• Example: An audience analysis for a wedding toast would consider the informal nature and emotional context of the event.

Environmental

• Definition: Analysis of the physical setting or environment where the speech will take place, such as the size of the room or the availability of technology.

• Contextual Usage: The environment can influence the delivery and logistics of the speech.

• Example: A speaker delivering a presentation in a large auditorium versus a small meeting room.

Occasion

• Definition: The context in which the speech is delivered, including the purpose or reason for the speech.

• Contextual Usage: The occasion helps shape the tone and approach of the speech.

• Example: A wedding speech will differ significantly from a business presentation due to the nature of the occasion.

Demographic

• Definition: Analyzing the audience based on characteristics such as age, gender, education level, and cultural background.

• Contextual Usage: Understanding the demographics helps tailor the message to the audience’s values and interests.

• Example: A speaker might adjust their language and tone based on the age group they are addressing, such as a speech for teenagers versus adults.

Framing vs. Stereotyping

• Definition:

  • Framing: Presenting information in a way that shapes the perception of the audience.

  • Stereotyping: Making oversimplified and generalized assumptions about a group of people.

• Contextual Usage: Framing is a rhetorical tool, whereas stereotyping can lead to biased thinking.

• Example:

  • Framing: Framing a debate on healthcare as a moral issue.

  • Stereotyping: Saying all politicians are corrupt based on the actions of a few.

Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values

• Definition:

  • Attitudes: A person’s feelings toward something.

  • Beliefs: Convictions or truths that a person holds.

  • Values: Core principles or standards that guide behavior.

• Contextual Usage: Understanding an audience’s attitudes, beliefs, and values is crucial for persuasive speaking.

• Example: A speaker may appeal to an audience's values of equality and justice when arguing for civil rights.

Methods of Audience Analysis

• Definition: Techniques used to understand the audience’s characteristics, expectations, and responses to a message.

• Contextual Usage: Audience analysis helps speakers adjust their content and delivery to effectively communicate with their listeners.

• Example: Conducting a survey or asking questions to gauge the audience's knowledge and attitudes toward the topic.

Plagiarism

• Definition: The act of using someone else's words, ideas, or work without proper acknowledgment.

• Contextual Usage: Plagiarism is unethical and can result in academic or legal consequences.

• Example: Copying and pasting text from an online source into a speech without citing the source.

Reference List

• Definition: A list of all sources cited in a speech or paper, providing complete bibliographic details.

• Contextual Usage: A reference list ensures that the speaker’s sources are properly credited and allows the audience to verify the information.

• Example: A reference list at the end of a speech may include books, journal articles, and websites that were referenced during the presentation.

Credibility and Ethos, Logos, Pathos

Ethos

• Definition: The credibility or trustworthiness of the speaker.

• Contextual Usage: A speaker with strong ethos is perceived as knowledgeable, reliable, and trustworthy.

• Example: A doctor giving a speech about health will be seen as more credible due to their expertise.

Logos

• Definition: Logical appeal, based on reasoning and evidence.

• Contextual Usage: Logos involves using facts, statistics, and logical arguments to persuade the audience.

• Example: Presenting data on the effectiveness of a policy in reducing crime to persuade an audience.

Pathos

• Definition: Emotional appeal, aiming to elicit feelings from the audience.

• Contextual Usage: Pathos is used to connect with the audience on an emotional level, evoking feelings like empathy, fear, or joy.

• Example: A speech about animal cruelty that includes heart-wrenching images to evoke an emotional response from the audience.

Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning

• Definition: A logical process where a general statement is applied to a specific case.

• Contextual Usage: Deductive reasoning moves from general principles to specific conclusions.

• Example: All humans need water to survive (general statement). John is a human (specific case). Therefore, John needs water to survive (conclusion).

Inductive Reasoning

• Definition: A logical process where specific observations or facts lead to a general conclusion.

• Contextual Usage: Inductive reasoning moves from specific examples to broader generalizations.

• Example: Every time I touch a stove, it burns me (specific observation). Therefore, stoves are hot (general conclusion).

Logical Fallacies

• Definition: Errors in reasoning that weaken an argument.

• Contextual Usage: Logical fallacies undermine the strength of an argument and can mislead the audience.

• Example:

  • Ad hominem: Attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself.

  • False dilemma: Presenting only two options when more exist.

Sources: Primary vs. Secondary

• Definition:

  • Primary Sources: Original, firsthand sources of information.

  • Secondary Sources: Sources that interpret, analyze, or summarize primary sources.

• Contextual Usage: Primary sources provide direct evidence, while secondary sources offer analysis or commentary.

• Example:

  • Primary Source: A speech given by a historical figure.

  • Secondary Source: A book analyzing the historical figure’s speeches.

Interviewing and Evaluating Sources' Credibility

• Definition: The process of gathering information from others and assessing the reliability of the sources.

• Contextual Usage: Evaluating a source's credibility is important for ensuring the accuracy and trustworthiness of the information used in a speech.

• Example: Interviewing an expert in climate science and verifying their credentials before citing them in a speech.

Bias and Types of Evidence (Statistics, Testimony, Examples)

• Definition:

  • Bias: A tendency to favor one side or perspective unfairly.

  • Statistics: Numerical data used to support arguments.

  • Testimony: Statements from experts or eyewitnesses that support the argument.

  • Examples: Specific instances or cases used to illustrate a point.

• Contextual Usage: Using unbiased, well-supported evidence helps strengthen an argument.

• Example:

  • Statistics: “Research shows 70% of students use social media daily.”

  • Testimony: A doctor explaining medical research.

  • Examples: Describing a personal experience to support an argument.

Citing Sources (Verbally, In-text, and on Reference List)

• Definition: The practice of giving credit to the sources used in a speech, both during the presentation and in written form.

• Contextual Usage: Citing sources ensures the speaker’s credibility and avoids plagiarism.

• Example:

  • Verbally: “According to a study by Dr. Smith…”

  • In-text: “(Smith, 2020)”

  • Reference List: A full citation of the source at the end of the speech.

Parts of a Speech

Introduction

• Definition: The beginning section of a speech that introduces the topic, purpose, and main points.

• Contextual Usage: The introduction sets the stage and prepares the audience for the content.

• Example: “Good evening, today we will explore the importance of renewable energy.”

Thesis

• Definition: A concise statement that presents the main idea or argument of the speech.

• Contextual Usage: The thesis provides a clear direction for the audience and the speaker.

• Example: “Renewable energy is crucial for reducing our dependence on fossil fuels.”

Body

• Definition: The main part of the speech, where the key points are presented and supported with evidence.

• Contextual Usage: The body provides the content and structure of the argument or information.

• Example: The body of a speech on renewable energy might discuss different types of renewable sources like solar, wind, and hydroelectric.

Conclusion

• Definition: The final section that summarizes the main points and provides closure.

• Contextual Usage: The conclusion reinforces the speech’s key message and leaves a lasting impression.

• Example: “In conclusion, adopting renewable energy is essential for a sustainable future.”

Transitions

• Definition: Words or phrases that help the speaker move smoothly between different sections of the speech.

• Contextual Usage: Transitions maintain the flow of the speech and keep the audience engaged.

• Example: “Next, let’s look at the impact of renewable energy on the economy.”

Narrative Coherence and Fidelity

• Definition:

  • Narrative Coherence: The logical flow and consistency of the story or argument within a speech.

  • Narrative Fidelity: The truthfulness and reliability of the narrative or story presented in a speech.

• Contextual Usage: Both coherence and fidelity ensure that the speech makes sense and is believable for the audience.

• Example:

  • Coherence: A speech on climate change is well-structured and flows logically from the problem to the solution.

  • Fidelity: Citing accurate scientific data about climate change that the audience can verify.

Organizational Patterns

Spatial

• Definition: An organizational pattern that arranges information based on physical location or space.

• Contextual Usage: Useful for topics where the location or arrangement of elements is important.

• Example: Describing the layout of a house or a city, organizing information from the front door to the back yard.

Chronological

• Definition: Organizing information according to the sequence of time.

• Contextual Usage: This pattern is used to explain processes, events, or stories that follow a timeline.

• Example: Explaining the history of the internet from its invention to present-day usage.

Topical (Categorical)

• Definition: Organizing information into categories or subtopics that relate to the main topic.

• Contextual Usage: This pattern is often used when a topic has different components that do not necessarily follow a timeline or spatial order.

• Example: A speech on healthy eating could organize the information into categories like "Nutrition," "Exercise," and "Mental Health."

Cause-and-Effect (Causal)

• Definition: Organizing information by discussing a cause and its resulting effect(s).

• Contextual Usage: This pattern is ideal for showing the relationship between events or actions and their outcomes.

• Example: A speech on smoking might discuss the causes (addiction, peer pressure) and the effects (lung cancer, heart disease).

Problem-Cause-Solution

• Definition: Organizing a speech by first identifying a problem, then discussing its causes, and finally offering potential solutions.

• Contextual Usage: This pattern is effective for persuasive speeches that aim to highlight an issue and suggest actionable solutions.

• Example: A speech on homelessness may first highlight the problem of homelessness, discuss the causes (lack of affordable housing, mental health issues), and then propose solutions (increased funding for shelters, mental health programs).

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

• Definition: A five-step organizational pattern used in persuasive speeches, designed to motivate an audience to take action. The steps are: Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization, and Action.

• Contextual Usage: This pattern is highly effective for motivating audiences and persuading them to act on a specific issue.

• Example: A persuasive speech encouraging people to donate to charity might first grab the audience’s attention with a powerful story (Attention), identify the problem of poverty (Need), propose ways to help (Satisfaction), visualize the impact of donations (Visualization), and call to action (Action).

Internal Previews and Summaries

• Definition:

  • Internal Previews: Brief statements within a speech that outline what is coming next.

  • Internal Summaries: Recaps that highlight the key points already covered.

• Contextual Usage: These help the audience follow the flow of the speech and understand where the speaker is headed.

• Example:

  • Preview: "Next, we will discuss the economic impact of renewable energy."

  • Summary: "To summarize, we’ve covered the environmental, economic, and social benefits of renewable energy."

Signposts

• Definition: Words or phrases used to guide the audience through a speech by signaling transitions, key points, or conclusions.

• Contextual Usage: Signposts help the speaker maintain clarity and ensure the audience stays engaged and informed.

• Example: "First," "Secondly," "Finally," "In conclusion," or "Let’s move on to the next point."

Full-Sentence (Working/Preparation) Outline

• Definition: A detailed outline where every point and sub-point is written out as a complete sentence, showing how the speech will be developed.

• Contextual Usage: This outline is often used in the preparation phase to ensure the speech is well-organized and logically structured.

• Example: "The first benefit of renewable energy is that it reduces pollution. This is evident from studies conducted by the Clean Energy Organization in 2022."

Keyword (Speaking/Delivery) Outline

• Definition: A more concise outline that includes only the key points or keywords for each section of the speech, designed for use during the actual delivery.

• Contextual Usage: A keyword outline allows the speaker to stay on track without reading from a full script, maintaining a conversational tone.

• Example: Bullet points like "Introduction – Hook, Purpose, Thesis," followed by keywords like "Benefits of Solar Energy – Cost, Environment."

Format Consistency

• Definition: The practice of maintaining uniform formatting throughout the outline, ensuring clarity and ease of use.

• Contextual Usage: Consistency helps the speaker navigate the outline easily during the speech.

• Example: Using consistent indentation, numbering, and bullet points for main points and subpoints.

Coordination and Subordination of Points

• Definition: The principle that main points and subpoints should be logically organized with clear relationships. Main points should have supporting subpoints, and subpoints should support the main points.

• Contextual Usage: This structure ensures that the argument is organized in a way that is easy for the audience to follow and understand.

• Example:

  • Main Point: The benefits of renewable energy.

    • Subpoint: It reduces carbon emissions.

    • Subpoint: It is sustainable and reduces reliance on fossil fuels.

Time Consideration

• Definition: The need to be aware of time limits when organizing and delivering a speech, ensuring that the content fits within the allotted time frame.

• Contextual Usage: Time consideration helps to prioritize content, avoid going over time, and ensures all points are addressed.

• Example: If a speech is limited to 10 minutes, the speaker may need to condense or eliminate less important details to stay within the time frame.

Chapter 13: Managing Public Speaking Anxiety

Communication Apprehension (Trait and State)

• Definition:

  • Trait Communication Apprehension: A general tendency or characteristic of an individual to feel anxious about communication across various situations.

  • State Communication Apprehension: Anxiety experienced in a specific communication situation, such as giving a speech.

• Contextual Usage: People may have trait communication apprehension, which makes them anxious in all forms of communication, or they may experience state apprehension specifically when speaking publicly.

• Example:

  • Trait: A person always feels nervous when talking to anyone, not just during presentations.

  • State: A person only experiences anxiety when asked to deliver a speech in front of an audience.

Public Speaking Anxiety and Stage Fright

• Definition: A specific form of anxiety that occurs when an individual is required to speak in front of an audience. It is often referred to as stage fright.

• Contextual Usage: Common in situations where a person feels self-conscious or worries about being judged.

• Example: A student feeling nervous about delivering a speech in class might experience sweaty palms, a racing heartbeat, or forget their words due to stage fright.

Strategies for Managing Anxiety:

• Prepare: Becoming familiar with the material beforehand to reduce uncertainty.

• Practice: Rehearsing the speech multiple times to build confidence.

• Breathe: Using deep breathing techniques to calm the nervous system.

• Visualization: Mentally rehearsing the speech and imagining a successful outcome.

• Connect with Audience: Focusing on the message and audience rather than self-consciousness.

• Reframe Negative Thoughts: Changing negative self-talk into positive affirmations.

• Volunteer Early: Volunteering to speak early in a situation to overcome initial anxiety.

• Contextual Usage: These techniques help individuals manage their anxiety and perform better during speeches.

• Example: A speaker might practice their speech multiple times (Practice), take deep breaths before stepping onto the stage (Breathe), and reframe thoughts like “I’ll fail” into “I’m ready and prepared” (Reframe Negative Thoughts).

Systematic Desensitization

• Definition: A technique used to gradually reduce anxiety by exposing a person to increasingly stressful situations related to public speaking.

• Contextual Usage: Typically involves first visualizing the act of speaking, then speaking in front of small groups, and progressively facing larger audiences.

• Example: A person who is afraid of public speaking might start by practicing speeches in front of a mirror, then move to speaking in front of friends, and eventually address a large group.

Types of Speeches:

• Manuscript: A speech delivered from a written text word-for-word.

• Memorized: A speech that is fully written out and memorized.

• Impromptu: A speech delivered with little to no preparation, often in response to an unexpected situation.

• Extemporaneous: A speech delivered with limited preparation, often using an outline or notes.

• Mediated: A speech that is delivered through some form of media, such as video or radio.

• Contextual Usage: Different situations may require different types of speeches, depending on preparation time and audience expectations.

• Example:

  • Manuscript: A political leader delivering a formal address.

  • Impromptu: A speaker asked to make a few remarks at a party or event without prior notice.

Group Presentations

• Definition: A presentation delivered by a team or group of individuals, rather than a single speaker.

• Contextual Usage: Requires coordination and collaboration between group members to ensure a seamless delivery.

• Example: A group project presentation where each team member presents a different section of the research.

Effective Speech Delivery:

• Volume: Refers to how loudly or softly a speaker speaks.

• Pitch: The highness or lowness of a speaker's voice.

• Tone: The emotional quality of the speaker’s voice, which conveys attitude and mood.

• Speech Rate: The speed at which a speaker delivers their message.

• Contextual Usage: Effective delivery requires variation in these elements to keep the audience engaged and convey the message clearly.

• Example: A speaker might lower their tone to convey seriousness and increase their volume to emphasize an important point.

Avoiding Vocal (Verbal) Fillers, Gestures, Eye Contact, Movement, Appearance

• Definition: Tips for improving speech delivery, including avoiding "um," "uh," or other filler words, using appropriate gestures, maintaining eye contact, controlling movement, and presenting a professional appearance.

• Contextual Usage: These elements help improve the audience's perception of the speaker and make the message more effective.

• Example: A speaker who avoids saying “um” and uses purposeful gestures while making eye contact will appear more confident and engaged with the audience.

Presentation Aids:

• Text: Written information, often used for emphasis or clarification.

• Graphs: Visual representations of data.

• Models: Physical or 3D representations of objects or systems.

• Objects: Tangible items used to demonstrate or support a point.

• Photographs: Images used to illustrate ideas or concepts.

• Audio: Sound used to reinforce the message, such as music or recorded dialogue.

• Video: Moving images used to complement or enhance a speech.

• Contextual Usage: Presentation aids help to clarify, emphasize, and illustrate key points in a speech.

• Example: A speaker on global warming might show a graph of rising temperatures, play an audio clip of an expert interview, and display photographs of affected areas.

Chapter 14: Informative Speaking

Techniques of Informing:

• Definition: Various methods used to present information clearly and effectively to an audience.

  • Definition: Explaining the meaning of a term or concept.

  • Explanation: Providing more detail or a deeper understanding of an idea.

  • Description: Giving a vivid or detailed account of something.

  • Exploration: Investigating a topic from multiple perspectives.

  • Narrative: Using a story to illustrate a point.

  • Demonstration: Showing how something works or how to do something.

• Contextual Usage: Different techniques are used based on the purpose of the speech and the nature of the information.

• Example: A speaker explaining a new software program might use demonstration to show how it works, and description to detail its features.

Prior Knowledge

• Definition: The existing knowledge the audience has on a topic before a speaker introduces new information.

• Contextual Usage: Understanding the audience’s prior knowledge allows the speaker to adjust the level of complexity or detail.

• Example: A speaker discussing space exploration might adjust their language if the audience consists of science experts or general public members.

Learning Styles:

• Auditory: Learners who best understand and retain information through listening.

• Read/Write: Learners who benefit from reading and writing activities.

• Visual: Learners who absorb information best through visual aids.

• Kinesthetic: Learners who learn best through hands-on activities and physical engagement.

• Contextual Usage: A good speaker considers the learning style of their audience when presenting information.

• Example: A speaker using visual aids like diagrams for a visual learner, or providing hands-on demonstrations for a kinesthetic learner.

Repetition and Simplification

• Definition: Repeating key points and simplifying complex concepts to improve understanding and retention.

• Contextual Usage: Repetition helps the audience retain information, while simplification ensures that complex ideas are accessible.

• Example: A speaker on climate change might repeatedly emphasize the importance of reducing carbon emissions and simplify scientific data for a general audience.