Chapter 5: European Exploration and Conquest

Europe during the medieval period was not a dominant global force.
Key comparisons:
- Compared to regions like China and India, Europe was notably weaker and economically poorer.
- China (especially under the Ming dynasty) produced greater wealth, had larger populations, and military power that exceeded that of European kingdoms collectively.
- Cultural influence of China on neighboring regions was significant.

The significant geographical expansion of European power initiated in the 15th century.
Major question: Why did European states expand rapidly while other civilizations like China, the Ottoman Empire, and Indian kingdoms did not?
A paradoxical reason: Europe’s relative poverty compared to the wealth of Eastern states prompted Europeans to seek new sources of wealth.
Europeans required luxury goods (spices, porcelain) that they could not produce, leading to their pursuit of direct trade routes to the East that bypassed costly East-West trade networks.

Economic Factors: Unlimited demand for luxury goods from South and East Asia in European society since Roman times.
Highly valued goods:
- Spices (worth far more than gold)
- Chinese porcelain
Merchants along routes (Indian Ocean, Silk Road) could amass great wealth, yet these routes were difficult to navigate due to vast distances.

The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 disrupted traditional trade routes, especially those controlled by the Venetians.
Increased desire for direct access to sources of wealth, influenced by anti-Muslim sentiments and the Ottoman control over critical trade links.
Crusading Ideology: Inspired many explorers, especially under the legacy of the Reconquest of Spain and Portugal, which concluded in 1492 (the same year Columbus sailed).

Improvements in navigational technology after 1400 were crucial for exploration:
- Development of the caravel, capable of sailing against lateral winds.
- Availability of navigational instruments, such as compasses and the astrolabe, which accurately measured latitude.
By 1420, European knowledge of navigation and geography had improved significantly, enabling transoceanic ventures.
Despite advancements, European knowledge of the world remained limited and imprecise.

Europeans had some familiarity with North Africa due to trade in commodities like gold and ivory.
The Mali Empire was influential for trade across the Sahara to North Africa and the Mediterranean.
By the 15th century, advancements in maritime technology allowed for reliable journeys along the African coast, under leadership such as Prince Henry the Navigator.

Vasco Da Gama (1497): Completed a monumental voyage around Africa to India, claiming territories for Portugal, marking the start of Portuguese trade monopolies.

Spanish expeditions, starting with Christopher Columbus in 1492, were motivated by a mix of religious zeal and the desire for new trade routes.
Columbus misunderstandings:
- Held incorrect beliefs about the distance to Asia, relying on inaccurate ancient geographic assessments.
Columbus's fleet: Included the Niña, Pinta, and Santa Maria.
He reached the Bahamas in October 1492, marking the beginning of sustained European engagement with the Americas.

The exchange of plants, animals, and pathogens between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres established during Columbus’s voyages.
Key exports from the New World:
- Corn, potatoes, tobacco, chocolate, and tomatoes.
Key imports from the Old World:
- Horses, cows, wheat, and sugarcane.
The most significant biological exchange was the smallpox virus, which decimated Native American populations.

Term used to describe the catastrophic decline of Native American populations, with estimates of up to 90% mortality from diseases introduced by Europeans.
European conquest was expedited not only by superior weaponry and tactics but significantly by diseases that incapacitated native populations.

Following Columbus's discoveries, the Spanish crown sought to consolidate claims in the New World.
The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494):
- Divided new territories between Spain and Portugal; gave resources to each power based on an arbitrary line drawn in the Atlantic.
Spain focused on territories in the Caribbean and later Central and South America.

The acknowledgment that Columbus misidentified the New World.
- The term “America” was coined by explorer Amerigo Vespucci, who recognized the Americas as distinct continents.
Continued exploration for western routes to Asia led to expeditions such as Ferdinand Magellan’s voyage (1519-1522), which was the first to circumnavigate the globe.

Spanish explorers and conquerors known as conquistadors were driven by the search for wealth and glory.
Many were impoverished nobles with few prospects in Spain, often taking risks without royal authorization.
Hernan Cortes: Led the expedition that conquered the Aztecs. Utilized alliances with native groups to overthrow the Aztec empire.
Francisco Pizarro: Followed Cortes's success by conquering the Incan Empire, capturing Atahualpa, and plundering vast amounts of la.

Wealth from newfound mineral deposits, particularly from Potosí (discovered in 1545), had severe humanitarian costs, establishing systems of exploitation like the mita.
Spanish reliance on gold and silver led to rapid wealth but eventual decline due to inflation and a lack of innovative commerce.
Native Americans faced severe repercussions, leading to forced conversions, servitude, and significant loss of life.
European societies increasingly relied on labor sourced from Africa through the Transatlantic Slave Trade, compounding the atrocities of conquest.

The Spanish and Portuguese conquests facilitated significant shifts in global power dynamics, cementing European dominance.
These early modern explorations starting in 1492 marked a pivotal moment, heralding contact between global hemispheres that led to enormous cultural, demographic, and economic transformations.

Spanish policies and beliefs were often rooted in religious justifications for conquest, leading to the perception of native populations as needing salvation and providing rationale for violent subjugation.