Exam 1-A&P 1

Exam 1: 75 questions each worth 2 points

\ Chapter 1: Human organism 17 questions

Chapter 2: Chemistry 17 questions

Chapter 3: Cell 19 questions

Chapter 4: Tissue 18 questions

Devotional/ study skills 4 questions

\ Devotional Material

The theme of this semester: What am I Becoming?

Decision (profess) vs. Commitment (possess)

Johann Sebastien Bach-SDG( to god be the glory)

Selflessness (jesus) vs. Selfishness (satan-this sinful world we live in)

\ Study Skills

Study Skills

1. Have a plan! (Be Committed)

a. Setup an agenda for each day and each class.

b. Outline the days material and make study notes under each category.

2. Do not Press the Snooze Button (James 5:12) procrastination

a. Review the Sleep Cycle

1. Nrem stages 1-3 REM Nrem 3-1 = 1 Sleep Cycle which last approximately 90 minutes

2. College age students need 5-6 sleep cycles per night (7.5-9hours of sleep)

3. No phone 30 minutes before bed or energy drinks after 5 before bed.

4. Plan your going to sleep by the time you want to wake up.

5. Do not plan on waking up in Nrem 2,3 or REM otherwise you will be groggy and agitated.

3. Take a Spiritual shower (1 John 1:9) and Psalm 51

4. Set our eyes on things above and put to death bad habits. Colossians 3:1-17

Chapter 1 The Human Organism

1. Definition to know:

a. Anatomy: scientific discipline tha tinvestigates the bodys structure

1. Gross Anatomy: structures examined without a microcope

a. Regional: studied area by area.

b. Systemic: studied system by system

c. Surface: external form used to visualize deeper strucures

2. Microscopic

a. Cytology: cellular anatomy

b. Histology: study of tissues

3. Anatomical Imaging ID

a. X-ray: electromagnetic radiation moves through body and is exposed on

photographic plate; creates radiograph.

Ultrasound: sound waves pass into body and bounce back to receiver;

visualized as a sonogram.

•Computed Tomography (CT): computer-analyzed x-ray images.

Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA): similar to a CT scan but uses a

radiopaque dye to enhance differences in areas.

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): radio waves directed to patient while

under electromagnetic field; radio waves collected and analyzed by

computer.

• Positron Emission Tomography (PET): radioactively labeled glucose usage by

a tissue is detected; provides info on metabolic state.

f. Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan)

b. Physiology

1. Systemic Physiology:functions of organ systems

a. Cardiovascular-the heart and blood vessels

b. Neuro-Physiology-focuses on the nervous system

2. Cellular Physiology-processes in cells

3. Exercise Physiology-chnages in strual and function caused by exercise.

c. Pathology-structual and functional changes caused by disease.

2. Levels of organization in the body from smallest to largest

a. Chemical- atoms and molecules

b. Cells and their organelles

c. Tissues and their functions- group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. Four tissue types – epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous.

d. Organs-two or more tissues functioning together

e. Organ Systems: groups of organs functioning together

1. Integument: Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D. Consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands.

2. Skeletal: Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and fat. Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints.

3. Muscle: Produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces body heat. Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.

4. Nervous-A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.

5. Cardiovascular-Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature. Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

6. Lymphatics (Immune)-Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs fats from the digestive tract. Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs.

7. Endocrine: A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions. Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones.

8. Respiratory: Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH. Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages.

9. Digestive Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes. Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs.

10. Urinary- Removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance. Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine.

11. Male Reproductive-Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors. Consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis.

12. Female Reproductive-Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn; produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors. Consists of the ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands, and associated structures.

3. Characteristics of Life

a. Development: changes in an organism over time

b. Differentiation-chnage from general to specific

c. Morphogenesis-change in shape of tissues, organs, or the entire organism.

d. Reproduction-formation of new cells or new organisms for growth and development; allows organisms to pass on their genes to their offspring.

4. Survival Needs

a. Nutrients: carbs, proteins, fats, nucleic acids, vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, E, K

b. Oxygen

c. Water: essential for energy release (ATP production). Most abundant chemical in the body and the site of chemical reactions.

d. Body temperature stable at 98.6 F external 100.4 F core.

e. Able to Adjust to changing atmospheric conditions

5. Homeostasis and Diagnosis

a. The bodies ability to maintain stability in response to changes in internal and external environments

b. Negative Feedback mechanisms: moving the stimulus in the opposite direction

1. Hypothalamus in Brain regulating Body temperature by Shivering and Sweating.

2. Thermostat in House regulating Hot and Cold

3. Medulla Oblongata regulating Blood Pressure and Oxygen levels to Brain and Body.

c. Positive Feedback mechanisms

1. Labor and Birth

2. Breast Feeding: The baby’s suckling of the breast is the initial stimulus, which is detected by the sensory receptors in the skin of the nipple. The receptors send a signal to the control center in the hypothalamus. A signal is sent from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland, where oxytocin, a hormone, is produced and secreted. The oxytocin travels in the bloodstream to the mammary glands, which are the effectors, causing them to secrete milk.

3. Blood Clotting Cascade

6. Necessary Life Functions

a. Maintaining boundaries between the Internal and External Environments

-cell level- plasma membranes

-organism level-skin

b. Movement

-of body parts (skeletal muscle)

-of substance (cardiac and smooth muscle)

c. Responsiveness-the ability to sense and respond to stimuli

-withdrawl reflex (touching something hot)

-control of breathing rate (O2 and Co2 levels)

d. Digestion

-breakdown of ingested food

-absorption of simple molecules into blood

e. Metabolism(cell respiration): all chemical reactions that occur in the body cells

-O2 + glucose= ATP+ CO2+H2O+Heat

-Catbolism-breakdown of substances (digestion)

_Anabolism- synthesis of substances (ATP)

f. Excretion- the removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion

-urea, carbon dioxide, and feces.

g. Reproduction -Meiosis: production of offspring

h. Growth:

-Mitosis: cellular division for growth or repair

7. Medical Terminology

a. Anatomical Position: body erect, face forward, feet together, palms face forward.

-supine-face upwards-laying on your spine

-prone facing downward or on stomach

b. Directional Terms:

-superior- cephalic

inferior - caudal

Medial-towards the midline

Lateral-away from the midline

Ventral is toward the belly-synomyms with anterior

Dorsal-toward the back.

Review Diagrams

b. Body Parts and Regions-Review Diagrams

c. Body Planes- Review Diagrams

Sagittal left and right
Frontal- anterior and posterior
Transverse superior and inferior
median - down the midline

Body Cavities and Membranes-Review Diagram

\ Chapter 2: The Chemistry of Life

1. Matter and energy- know the difference between both and the types of each 2. Know the definitions: 3. Matter:anything that has mass and takes up space 4. Mass: the amount of matter in an object (kg) 5. Weight: the gravitational force acting on an object of a agiven mass 6. Atom: smallest particle of an element that has chemical characteristics of that element. Atoms are composed of subatomic particles 7. Neutron: no electrical charge 8. Proton-one positive charge 9. Electron-one negative charge

What makes up the nucleus of an atom: formed by protons and neutrons. Most of hte volume of an atom is occupied by electrons.
What makes up the orbital shells
Element: the simplest type of matter with unique chemical properties; composed fo atoms of only one kind.
Atomic Number vs. Mass number: the atomic number is equal to the number of protons in eacb atom, which is equal to the number of electrons. Mass number is the number of protons + number of neutrons.
Isotope:two or more forms of same element with same number of protons and electrons but different neutron number. They have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Hydrogen (1H) Deuterium (2H) Tritium (3H)
(1p+;2n0;1e–)
(1p+; 1n0; 1e–)
(1p+; 0n0; 1e–)
Mole: Avogadro’s number( of atoms, ions, molecules
Molecule: two or more atoms chemically combined to form an independent unit.
hydrogen molecule (H2); water molecule (H2O)
Compound: a substance composed of two or more different types of atoms chemically combined.
Example: water (H2O); sodium chloride (NaCl)

Anion: are negatively charged because they gained electrons Cl-
Cation: are positively charged because they lost electrons.(know examples of each Na+
Know the 4 most common elements that make up the human body and which is the most common. Hydrogen(H), carbon (C), nitrogen, (N), and oxygen (O).

Four elements make up 96.5% of our body weight

Oxygen (O)-65% of our body weight

Carbon (C)-18.6% of our body weight

Hydrogen (H)-9.7% of our body weight

Nitrogen (N)-3.2% of our body weight

know the Atomic Symbol for the common less common, and trace elements that make up the body lesser common :.fluorine (F), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), and iodine (I). the lesser elements make up 3.9% of the body
Types of Bonding and examples of each:
Ionic-one atom steals an electron (s) from another (ex. NaCl)
Covalent: atoms share electrons with each other (ex. O2)
Single Peptide Bond: 2 atoms share one pair of electrons
Double-O2 (oxygen) and CO2 (carbon dioxide): two atoms share 4 electrons
Trople-N2 (Nitrogen Gas):
Non-Polar Co2: electrons share EQUALLY because nuclei attract the electrons equally
Polar H20: Electrons not shared equally because one nucleus attracts the electrons more than the other does.
Chemical Reactions
Dehydration reaction-synthetic reaction (Anabolic) where water is a product
Hydrolysis Reaction-decomposition reaction (catabolic) water is split into two parts that contribute to the formation of the products
Solvent: that which dissolves the solute-water
Solute-that which dissolves in the solvent
Solution-mixture of liquids, gasses, or solids that are uniformly distributed
The solution is salt water: solvent: water, solute is sodium&chlorine
Factors affecting Chemical Reactions
Temperature-chemical reactions proceed quicker at higher temperatures
Particle size- the smaller the particle the faster the chemical reaction
Concentration-higher reacting particle concentrations produce faster reactions
Catalysts-increase the rate of reaction without being chemically changed
Enzymes-biological catalysts
Difference between Inorganic chemicals and organic chemicals
Inorganic Chemicals: substances that do not contain carbon-hydrogen bonds. Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, calcium phosphate, metal ions.
Water and its properties-its polar nature influences interaction with other molecules.
HydrophilicL: substances attracted to water: “water-loving.”
Hydrophobic: substances not attracted to water: water fearing.
Acts a lubricant to reduce friction between body parts-liquid cushion around organs to protect from trauma-bursa
Oxygen-required in the final step in the series of reactions used to extract energy from food
Carbon Dioxide-produced during the catabolism of organic compunds
Organic Chemicals, their properties, and where we find them in the body-study of carbon-containg substances
Carbohydrates:composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
Divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.
Energy sources, structure, and bulk for elimination.
Water soluble
Proteins-broken down into Polypeptide>peptide>amino acids
composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sometimes sulfur.
Functions: regulate processes, aid transport, protection, muscle contraction, structure, energy.
Lipids(Fars)-broken down into Fatty Acids
composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
Relatively insoluble in water.
Functions: protection, insulation, physiological regulation, component of cell membranes, energy storage.
Nucleic Acids-broken down to the nucleotides (A, T, C, G, U)
composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus.
Examples: A T P, D N A, R N A.

8. pH scale and understanding of Base, Acid, Neutral, and where we find certain substances on the scale. 9. Neutral: pH of 7 or equal amounts of hydrogen and hydroxide ions.

Acidic: pH of less than 7 with a greater concentration of hydrogen ions.
Alkaline (basic): pH of greater than 7 and a greater concentration of hydroxide ions.

\ CHAPTER 3: The Cell

1. Cell Organelles: organs of the cells. 2. Plasma Membrane 3. Nucleus-cells command center 4. Nucleolus-site of rRNA(Ribosome) production 5. Mitochondria-cells power plant where ATP is produced. 6. Mitochondria-cells power plant where ATP is produced. 7. Free Ribosome-not attached to the Rough ER and are the site where proteins to be used within the cell (ex: cytoskeleton) are made. 8. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum-site of protein synthesis. 9. The site where proteins destined to be secreted or become part of the plasma membrane are produced.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum-Site lipid synthesis
Golgi Apparatus-site of carbohydrate synthesis (UPS station)
Cis stack-labels substance for specific processing
Mid Stack-sorts and packages vacuoles.
Trans stack-secretes vacuoles into the cytoplasm
Lysosomes: cell garbage truck
Peroxisomes-calls toxic waste cleanup machine
Proteosomes-Diges non-functional proteins so Amino acids may be used
Cytoskeleton-cells frame
Microtubules-gives shape to the cell and determine where other organelles will be distributed in the cell.
Microfilaments-strengthens cell membrane
Intermediate filaments-forms connections between cells
Centrioles-anchor for mitosis spindles during cell division
Microvilli-increase surface area of the cell for absorption
Cilia-cell hair
Flagellum- allows for cell locomotion(spem cell)

Transport Mechanisms(KNOW definition and examples of each)

1. Types of Transport Mechanisms can either Active (require energy ATP), Passive (no energy required), or a combination of both. 2. Diffusion (passive) ex: gas can being opened 3. Osmosis (passive) ex: water through open protein channels 4. Go over cell shrinkage or swelling of blood slide and understand the effects of tonicity solutions on blood. 5. Isotonic: cell neither shrinks nor swells 6. Hypertonic: cell shrinks (crenation) 7. Facilitated diffusion (Active or Passive) ex: glucose and insulin 8. Active Transport (active) ex: reabsorbing nutrients in the kidney tubules. 9. Vesicular transport (active or passive)

Phagocytosis (macrophages eating bacteria)
Pinocytosis (absorbtion of water in through the lining of our small and large intestines.
Endocytosis-import by way of both a and b above.
Exocytosis- export of antibodies from a plasma cell

Topics of the cell organelles

1. Plasma Membrane 2. Make-up: 3. Phospholipid bilayer-hydrophilic/hydrophobic areas 4. Role of Cholesterol 5. Glycocalyx surface-glycoproteins-Glycolipids-self-antigens 6. Membrane Proteins 7. Open channel and carrier protein channels 8. Uniport: move one particle 9. Symport : move two particles in the same direction at the same time

Anti-port: move two particles in opposite directions at the same time.
Gaited Channel Proteins( have an example-insulin and sugar)
Receptor Proteins
Enzymatic Proteins
Communication Proteins: contains receptors that recognize and respond to molecular signals (hormones, neurotransmitters)
Cell interconnecting proteins
Tight junction: impermeable junction that encircles the cell
Desmosomes: anchoring junction scattered along the sides of cells
Gap Junction: a nexus that allows chemical substances to pass between cells
Permeability-determines what moves in and out of a cell:
Freely permeable-restricts movement in and out of the cell based on:
Size
Electrical charge
Molecular shape
Lipid solubility
Impermeable-lets nothing in or out of the cell
Transcription and Translation
Where each takes place
Transcription: strands of DNA are separated. The RNA polymerase bonds at a promoter region. RNA polymerase catalyse the formation of mRNA chain using the DNA as a template and following the rules of complementary base pairing- A with U & Cand G.
Translation: the information contained in the mRNA is used to determine the number, kinds, and arrangement of amino acids in the polyoeotide chain.
Difference between DNA and RNA
Types of RNA and their role in transcription and translation
Messenger RNA (mRNA): ) carries the genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
Transfer RNA (tRNA): bound to amino acids base pair with the codons of mRNA at the ribosome to begin the process of protein synthesis
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)-structual component of ribosmoes
What is a codon and an anticodon
The cell life cycle and its phases (G1, G0, S, G2) Mitosis/Meiosis)
What is the difference between Mitosis- all of the steps and Meiosis-essential for procreation(formationof sperm in males and eggs in females)
Where does Spermatogenesis
and Oogenesis take place?

Chapter 4 Tissue

\ TISSUES

Four Primary Tissue Types

1. Epithelial-covers or lines something. Always has a free surface.

2. Connective-connects tissue

3. Muscle-moves tissue

4. Nervous-stimulates tissue

I EPITHELIAL

A. Know how to name the epithelium?

First name

Simple-one cell layer thick

-substances pass through easily

Stratified-more than one layer thick

-functions for protection

Second name-based on the shape of cells at the free surface of the tissue

Squamous-Flat

simple -Things pass through easily

stratified- protection

Cuboidal- cube shaped

- These cells either secrete or absorb substances

Columnar- Column shaped

- These cells either secrete or absorb substances

Third Name- always Epithelium

\ Simple/Stratified, squamous/cuboidal/columnar, Epithelium

B. Types of Epithelium

1. Simple Squamous Epithelium

-Found in alveoli of lungs, capillaries

2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

-Found in Kidney tubules, small glands

3. Simple Columnar Epithelium

-Found in the small intestines

4. Stratified Squamous Epithelium

-Found in the skin, mouth, anus and vagina

5. Transitional Epithelium

-Epithelial type transitions from one type to another. Example-Urinary Bladder and Ureters transition from Stratified cuboidal epithelium when empty to Stratified squamous epithelium when full.

6. Glands-specialized epithelium that secrete a substance.

a. Exocrine Glands- Secrete there substance into a duct

b. Endocrine Glands-have no duct, secrete there substances directly into the blood.

7. Membranes

a. Serous-secrete watery (aqueous) solution

- Pleural, pericardial and mesentary

b. Mucous-secrete a thick mucous solution

-digestive tract , respiratory lining reproductive tract.

II. Connective Tissue

Secondary connective tissue types

A. Blood

1. Red Blood Cell (RBC’S)-Erythrocytes

- Carry oxygen

2. White Blood Cells (WBC’S)-Leukocytes

-Fight Infection

3. Platelets-Thrombocytes

-Clot Blood

4. Plasma

-Carries dissolved substances in the blood

5. Serum- Plasma without the clotting factors

B. Adipose-give cushion to organs and store fat

- Cells are called Adipocytes

White Fat/ Yellow Fat(Carotene)

Brown Fat- contains many mitochondria- produces much ATP

Subcutaneous Fat- jiggly fat

Visceral Fat- Under abdominal muscles and in thoracic cavity-deadly fat

C. Cartilage- Cells are called Chondrocytes and live in a space called lacuna and secrete a substance called matrix which if softer than bone.

3types of cartilage-

1. Hyaline- found in the rib cage, end of long bones.

2. Elastic- Found in the ear

3. Fibrous-found in the intervertebral disks

D. Bone- contain three types of cells

1. Osteocytes-Mature cells that maintain bone matrix

2. Osteoblast-produce bone matrix

3. Osteoclast-breakdown bone matrix

E. Connective Tissue Proper

Two Classes

A. Loose

1. Areolar-between skin/muscle+bone

2. Adipose-brown/white(yellow)

3. Reticular-lymph nodes,spleen

B. Dense

1. Regular-ligaments and tendons

2. Irregular-dermis and joint capsules.

3. Elastic- (stretchy ligaments) plantar fascia and Aorta

\ \ -contains two types of fibers produced by cells called fibroblasts (collagen- gives strength to tissue and elastic- gives stretch to the tissues)

-ratio of these fibers determines the specific type of connective tissue proper.

\ III. MUSCLE

-Three types of Muscle

1. Skeletal

– major muscles of the body

- striatied (regular stripes) and voluntary

2. Cardiac

- found only in the heart

- striated and involuntary

- contain intercalated discs that increase the strength of contraction

3. Smooth

- found in the digestive tract, blood vessels

- non striated and involuntary

IV. Nervous

Three parts of the nerve cell (neuron)

1. Dendrites- branches of nerve receptors that bring in sensory information to the nerve (Sensory input)

2. Cell Body- Interprets the sensory input and formulates a response (Integration)

3. Axon- transmits response from the cell body to the effector organ. (motor output)

4. Effector organ- either another Nerve, Gland or Muscle.

5. Synapse- space between the nerve and the effector organ

Three general types of synapses

a. Neuro-neuro junction

b. Neuro-glandular junction

c. Neuromuscular junction

\ \