Pathology 1 of 3

Pathology Overview

  • Introduction to Pathology
      - Focus on diseases and conditions.
      - Importance of understanding the interplay between pathology (path), microbiology (micro), anatomy, and physiology.
      - Essential to know where and how things work correctly to understand when they are broken.

Cardiovascular Diseases

  • Definition and Overview
      - Cardiovascular diseases primarily involve heart conditions.

Arterial Conditions

  • Arterial Atherosclerosis
      - Definition: Patchy thickening in the wall of arteries that reduces lumen elasticity.
      - Consequences: Thrombosis risk; thrombus can break off and become an emboli.

Risk Factors for Atherosclerosis

  • High blood pressure: Puts pressure on arterial tree.

  • Age: Over 45 years increases risk.

  • Serum lipids: High levels of LDL (the bad cholesterol) vs. HDL (the good cholesterol).

  • Smoking: Increases risk across all body tissues.

  • Diabetes Mellitus: Affects all body tissues.

  • Morbid obesity: Sustained weight over many years increases risk significantly.

  • Gender: After menopause, women's risk increases; by age 65, risk is similar for both genders.

  • Familial Hyperlipoproteinemia (Type III): Genetic factors.

Ischemic Heart Disease and Cerebrovascular Disease

  • Major cause of mortality worldwide.
      - Strokes: Require rapid treatment to minimize damage.

Stroke Recognition: FAST Method

  • Face: Drooping or weakness, especially one side.

  • Arm: Weakness or inability to move.

  • Speech: Slurred or incoherent speech.

  • Time: Critical to act within 2 hours for treatment.
      - Recommendation: Administer baby aspirin if a stroke is suspected.

Types of Aneurysms

  • Definition: Dilation in the wall of an artery or vein.

  • Common Locations
      - Central Aortic Aneurysm: Most common type.
      - Peripheral Aneurysm: Commonly found in the popliteal area.

  • Symptoms of Dissecting Aneurysm
      - Severe tearing pain, often demands emergency attention.
      - High-pressure background: 70% of patients have uncontrolled high blood pressure.

Anterior Scalloping

  • Associated with aneurysms compressing bone.

  • Scalloping indicates pressure from aneurysms leading to hypertrophy of affected vertebrae.

Types of Aneurysms

  • Berry Aneurysms: Common in the anterior communicating artery, particularly in young males. High headache severity with potential for stroke-like symptoms.

  • Family History: Increased risk if relatives had aneurysms.

  • Associated Conditions: CVA, TIAs, indicating potential risk for acute stroke.

Congenital Heart Diseases

  • Patent Ductus Arteriosus: Congenital failure to close the ductus arteriosus, common in premature infants.

  • Cor Pulmonale: Right ventricular enlargement due to lung conditions.

  • Tetralogy of Fallot: Congenital heart defect characterized by four components (DRIP): Dextrorotation of aorta, right ventricle hypertrophy, interventricular septal defect, and pulmonary stenosis.

Anemia Classification

Microcytic Hypochromic Anemia

  • Definition: Smaller red blood cells with low hemoglobin; typically iron deficiency due to chronic blood loss (e.g., menstruation, ulcers).

  • Common in women of childbearing age.

Macrocytic Normochromic Anemia

  • Definition: Larger than normal red blood cells; problems often associated with B12 or folate deficiency.

  • Common causes: Poor absorption, dietary deficiency, or increased need (e.g., pregnancy).

Hypertension

  • Description: Sustained diastolic blood pressure greater than 90 mmHg, often presenting with throbbing headaches.

Types of Hypertension

  • Essential Hypertension: Age-related, with an unknown cause.

  • Secondary Hypertension: Often due to sodium retention leading to increased peripheral resistance.

  • Incremental severity from benign (early) to malignant (severe), causing damage to small blood vessels, retinal hemorrhaging.

Gastrointestinal Disorders

Esophageal Disorders

  • Achalasia: Dysfunction of esophageal sphincter leading to swallowing difficulties.

  • Plummer-Vinson Syndrome: Membranous webs across the esophagus.

  • GERD (Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease): Weak lower esophageal sphincter allowing stomach contents to reflux into the esophagus, causing pain and potential Barrett’s esophagus leading to cancer.

Ulcers & Stomach Disorders

  • Duodenal Ulcers: Most common type, followed by gastric ulcers, commonly associated with H. pylori infection and NSAIDs.

  • Gastric Cancer: Typically occurs on the greater curvature, presenting with unexplained weight loss and persistent pain.

Liver Disorders

  • Cirrhosis: Resulting from chronic alcohol abuse or obesity, leads to a fatty liver; predisposes to liver cancer.

  • Alcoholic Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver affected by alcohol use.

Bowel Pathologies

  • Diverticulitis: Inflammation of diverticula, common in older adults.

  • Ulcerative Colitis: Inflammation of the colon usually leading to bloody diarrhea along with abdominal pain.

  • Crohn's Disease: Regionally segmental inflammation of the bowel with skip lesions.

Pulmonary Disorders

Lung Cancer

  • Leading cause of death; can be associated with smoking.

Pneumonia

  • Two million affected annually; common types include those due to Strep pneumoniae and atypical presentations from Mycoplasma.

Lung Diseases Unique to Sections

  • Pneumothorax: Air in the pleural space leading to lung collapse. Generally spontaneous in young men.

  • Atelectasis: Complete or partial lung collapse. Can be due to various reasons such as obstruction or pleural effusion.

Renal Disorders

Upper Urinary Tract Disorders

  • Glomerulonephritis: Mainly related to strep infections, resulting in proteinuria, hypertension, and edema.

  • Pyelonephritis: Kidney infections, presenting with fever, flank pain, and white blood cells in urine.

Lower Urinary Tract Disorders

  • Cystitis: Bladder inflammation characterized by frequency and urgency without fever.

  • Urethritis: Infection of the urethra causing painful urination.

Male Reproductive Disorders

  • Epididymitis: Infection/inflammation of the epididymis, typically presents posterior superior in the scrotum.

  • Hydrocele: Accumulation of serous fluid in the scrotal cavity.

  • Testicular Cancer: Often linked with undescended testicles (cryptorchidism).