European Exploration in the New World

The European exploration of North America in the 15th to 17th centuries had profound effects on both the indigenous populations and the European powers involved. In 1492, Christopher Columbus began his voyages and aimed to find a western route to Asia for trade, but he stumbled upon the Americas instead. In 1497, John Cabot explored the northeastern coast of North America, primarily seeking a northwest passage to Asia. The Columbian Exchange facilitated the exchange of goods between the Old World and the New World. New crops like maize and potatoes were introduced to Europe, while European animals like horses transformed indigenous societies.

Causes for European Exploration

• Merchants were seeking new, faster trade routes to China and India by sea instead of the long journey over the Silk Road.
• The rise of absolute monarchies in Europe and their vast wealth funded the expeditions.
• Technological advances in naval navigation allowed ships to travel further and more accurately.
• Due to the Renaissance, Europeans were interested in foreign cultures and wanted to explore new goods and ideas.
• Since Spain, England, France, Portugal, and the Netherlands all bordered the Atlantic Ocean, they had numerous ocean ports, which made oceanic exploration easier.

Competition and Conflict

Cabeza de Vaca

• Cabeza de Vaca was a part of a Spanish expedition in 1528 that was set to explore the interior of North America.
• All but 90 members of the expedition perished after a series of unfortunate events, leaving them stranded near Galveston Island, TX.
• They received help from the Karankawa tribe (in Texas) through the winter, but only 15 survived into the next spring.
• Cabeza de Vaca started to travel along the coast and the mainland, working as a healer to survive and visiting many native groups.
• His goal was to get to Mexico City and ultimately back home to Spain.
• It would take him over 15 years to make it to Mexico City, and he wrote of his experiences in a book called “La Relación y comentarios.”
  • In the book, he details his travels, including extensive descriptions of the native peoples and their ways of life.

Alonso Álvarez de Pineda

• Alonso Álvarez de Pineda was born in Spain, and in 1519, he led several expeditions along the Gulf of Mexico.
• He is credited with being the first European to discover the Mississippi River.
• His map is the first known map of the Gulf of Mexico coastal region, including parts of Texas.
• Unlike Cabeza de Vaca, Álvarez de Pineda was not working as a healer, but rather he was claiming lands in America for himself and ultimately for Spain.

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado

• Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was tasked with conquering the region of Northern reaches of the Spanish Empire in Mexico.
• Rumors had spread of cities paved with gold and ungodly riches. Taking 1,000 men, Coronado set off toward present-day New Mexico.
• He first encountered a group of Zuñis, and while he was ordering them to submit, the Zuñis attacked, and a battle ensued.
  • Eventually, Coronado and his men killed or captured the remaining Zuñi, and they headed in the direction of modern-day Texas.
• Coronado moved across the Texas panhandle region, but no gold or riches awaited him.
• Using several native guides, Coronado made his way from the Colorado River to the Great Plains of Texas in search of riches.
• He was met with various Native tribes, some of whom offered no resistance to Coronado or who did not have anything of value. Some tribes resisted his presence on their lands and, like the Zuñis, were destroyed.
• While Coronado did not bring back any riches to New Spain, he did leave a number of Catholic friars among the native tribes.
  • This will have been the first time the Christian faith was spread in the New World.

French Explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle

• René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle was a French explorer who came to the Americas in the mid-1600s.
• He is credited with being one of the first Europeans to navigate the entire Ohio River.
• He also explored the Illinois and Mississippi Rivers along with meeting tribes in the Great Lakes region.
• He was tasked with expanding land for New France and is credited with coining the name Louisiana.
• The territory he called Louisiana was the entire Mississippi Basin, not the state that we know today.

Impact on Indigenous Populations

• Exploration and colonization brought devastating consequences to indigenous populations, including the spread of diseases, loss of land, and cultural upheaval.
• Interactions with Europeans often led to conflicts and disruptions to traditional ways of life.
• European nations established colonial empires, each with varying territorial claims and governance structures. This often led to conflicts and disputes over land and resources.
• As more and more explorers and settlers reached the new world, they brought their Christian beliefs with them and sought to convert the Native Americans to Christianity.

Spanish Mission System

After the Spanish conquistadors and French explorers left the new world disillusioned, and no richer than when they started, the priests and friars of the Spanish Catholic faith still held great interest in the region. In particular, Father Damien Massenet took five other priests into the Texas territory to establish missions and colonies for Spain. Another notable priest was Father Francisco Hidalgo, who founded missions in East Texas. He was known to be one of the more patient and kind priests who encountered some success with Native tribes. Ultimately, he was unable to establish new missions beyond the Rio Grande as the Native Apaches denied his entry onto their lands.

The idea was that Spanish missions would appear near all Native settlements, and the Natives would come within the city walls to learn about Christianity and, eventually, be baptized and be part of Spanish society. However, the Natives were not interested in becoming Christians or Spaniards, and 60 years later, Spain abandoned the plan, with most priests returning to Mexico.

European Colonies in North America

While Europeans began exploring North America in 1492, it would not be until 1607 that the first permanent European settlement would be established in North America, the Jamestown colony in Virginia.

The French quickly followed with Quebec (Canada) in 1608. Soon after, the Plymouth Company (1620), the Massachusetts Bay Company (1629), the Company of New France (1627), and the Dutch West India Company (1621) began to send thousands of colonists, including families, to North America.

With the invasion of the Europeans, millions of Native Americans were displaced from their lands or died from disease. As more settlers arrived, conflicts arose with the Native Americans over property ownership as Native Americans had a different concept of land ownership than the Europeans.

Life in the early colonies was hard. The following is an excerpt from Captain John Smith’s Generall Historie of Virginia, published in 1624:

“But the Kettle, that indeed he allowed equally to be distributed, and that was half a pint of wheat, and as much barley boiled with water for a man a day, and this having fried some 26 weeks in the ship's hold, contained as many worms as grains; so that we might truly call it rather so much bran then corn, our drink was water, our lodgings Castles in the air: with this lodging and diet, our extreme toil in bearing and planting Palisadoes, so strained and bruised us, and our continual labor in the extremity of the heat had so weakened us, as were cause sufficient to have made us as miserable in our native Country, or any other place in the world. From May to September, those that escaped lived upon Sturgeon, and Sea-crabs, fifty in this time we buried.”

Establishment of the Colonial System

The Great Awakening

The Great Awakening was a religious revival movement that swept through the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. It emphasized individual piety, emotional preaching, and a personal relationship with God and helped to spread Protestantism throughout the colonies.

The Great Awakening had a significant impact on the colonies by promoting religious fervor, emotionalism, and individualism. It led to the establishment of new religious denominations and the rise of new leaders, as well as a greater emphasis on education and the spread of ideas. It also played a role in fostering a sense of unity and shared identity among colonists, which would later be important in the American Revolution.

Comparing the Colonies

Impact of the Triangular Trade on the Colonies

The triangular trade was a system of trade routes that developed during the colonial era, connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. European merchants traded manufactured goods such as guns, textiles, and rum to African slave traders in exchange for slaves, who were then transported across the Atlantic to the Americas. In the Americas, the slaves were sold to plantation owners who used them to produce raw materials such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton. These raw materials were then shipped back to Europe, where they were turned into finished goods and sold for profit.

The triangular trade had a significant impact on colonial economic development. The trade brought enormous wealth to European merchants and helped to fuel the growth of the British and French empires. In the Americas, the slave-based plantation system became the backbone of the colonial economies and generated enormous profits for plantation owners. The demand for raw materials also spurred the growth of industries such as shipping, banking, and insurance.

However, the triangular trade also had devastating consequences for African peoples. The trade helped to fuel the transatlantic slave trade, which saw millions of Africans taken from their homes and sold into slavery in the Americas. The slave trade disrupted African societies, creating political instability and social unrest. The loss of so many people also had economic consequences, as it disrupted traditional economic systems and reduced the population available for agricultural and industrial production.

The American Revolution

The American Revolution was a war between the thirteen British colonies and King George III of England. Patriots, those who wanted independence, and loyalists, those who remained loyal to the crown, fought in small skirmishes for years leading up to the actual Revolutionary War. After nearly ten years of fighting and with the help of the French, the Patriots prevailed, and the colonies won their independence.

The Road to Revolution

The Declaration of Independence

On January 10, 1776, Thomas Paine, an English-American political activist, anonymously published a pamphlet called "Common Sense," which argued that the American colonies should declare independence from Great Britain. The pamphlet sold more than 500,000 copies and became a crucial factor in inspiring colonists to support the idea of independence.

On July 4, 1776, American colonists officially declared independence from Great Britain with a letter written by Thomas Jefferson and revised by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin. The Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Independence, and the letter was sent to King George III. Great Britain tried to dismiss the letter as insignificant, but it was this document that would launch the colonies into the Revolutionary War.

The Declaration of Independence set the stage for some of the principles of the U.S. Constitution.

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, --That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.”

The Effects of the American Revolution on the People

The American Revolution had different effects on different social groups in the colonies.

The U.S. Constitution

After defeating the British in the Revolutionary War, our Founding Fathers had the enormous task of creating a whole new government. The first version of government that our founders came up with was the Articles of Confederation. This document would set the foundation for our current government but ultimately failed.

The Articles of Confederation (1777-1787)

1. Transformed the 13 colonies into the United States of America.
2. State governments still had their own powers that were not listed in the Articles of Confederation.
3. The combined states were responsible for helping to protect each other from attacks.
4. People can travel freely from state to state; however, criminals who left the state where they committed the crime would be sent back for trial.
5. Creates the Congress of the Confederation. Each state gets one vote in the congress and can send between 2 and 7 people to participate in the congress.
6. The new central government is responsible for working with other countries, including trade agreements and declaring war. States were required to have trained soldiers who could be ready to fight.
7. States could choose their own military leaders.
8. Only the new central government had the power to declare war and make peace with foreign countries.
9. Created a group called the Committee of States that could act for the Congress of Confederation when the Congress was not working.
10. Stated that Canada could join the U.S. if it wanted to.
11. Each state government had to raise money to give to the new central government.
12. Stated that the new nation agreed to pay for earlier war debts via taxes.
13. Declared that the Articles of Confederation were forever and could only be changed by the Congress of Confederation and if all the states agreed.
    

The Failures of the Articles of Confederation

The failure of the Articles of Confederation began with the Federalists and Anti-federalists.

• Federalists - Those who wanted a stronger federal government
• Anti-Federalists - Those who feared a federal government and preferred the states to have more power

Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay anonymously published 85 essays illustrating how the new form of government would operate. These series of articles were called the Federalist Papers and supported a more centralized government under a new constitution. Their primary target for these essays was opponents of the Constitution in New York. Today, the Federalist Papers are used as insight into the original intent of the Framers.

Shays Rebellion

Shays' Rebellion was a significant event that took place in the years following the American Revolution. It was a grassroots uprising led by debt-ridden Massachusetts farmers and led by Daniel Shays. After the Revolutionary War, many farmers faced financial difficulties due to war-related debts, high taxes, and economic recession. Creditors began seizing property and foreclosing on farms due to unpaid debts. Farmers felt that the legal system favored wealthy creditors.

In 1786-1787, groups of armed farmers led by Daniel Shays protested against high taxes and foreclosure policies. They sought to prevent courts from sitting and disrupting foreclosure proceedings. There were clashes between the rebels and state militia. The rebellion involved several confrontations, with the most notable being the Battle of Springfield in 1787.

Shays' Rebellion highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, the governing document of the time. The federal government lacked the authority and resources to address internal unrest and protect citizens from economic hardships. Shays' Rebellion was among the factors that prompted the call for the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Delegates recognized the need to revise or replace the Articles of Confederation to establish a more effective federal government.

The Northwest Ordinance

The Northwest Ordinance was enacted by the Continental Congress on July 13, 1787. It provided a framework for governing the newly acquired western territories and addressing issues related to land division, settlement, and the eventual admission of new states.

The Northwest Ordinance outlined a process for creating new states out of the western territories. It established a system of territorial governance that included the appointment of a governor, a secretary, and judges by the U.S. Congress. It also provided guidelines for creating a representative government as the territory's population grew.

One of the most significant aspects of the Northwest Ordinance was its stance on slavery. It explicitly stated that there should be no slavery or involuntary servitude in the new territories. This marked a notable departure from the prevailing practice in some other parts of the country.

The ordinance guaranteed certain legal rights to residents of the territories, such as the right to a trial by jury and religious freedom. These provisions reflected the principles of civil liberties and due process that were foundational to the American system of government.

The Philadelphia Convention of 1787

Fifty-five delegates from the different states came together in May of 1787 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to draft a new constitution. The Articles of Confederation were not working, and America needed a solution.

George Washington presided over the convention. Federalists and Anti-federalists came to a head over whether more power should rest with the central government or with the state governments.

Compromises of the Convention

• Great compromise:
  • Established a bicameral Congress
  • Representation in the House of Representatives is based on population
  • In the Senate, every state gets 2 senators, regardless of population size
• Three-Fifths Compromise:
  • Southern states had large populations of African American slaves and felt those slaves be counted for representation in the House.
  • Northern states said no because enslaved people were not perceived as citizens (or even people at that time).
  • Agreed that they would count 3/5 of the slave population towards representation in the House
• Electoral College:
  • Only white males who owned property could vote.
  • Each state gets representatives to the Electoral College.
  • The College is responsible for selecting the president of the United States.
  • In most elections (not all), the popular vote aligns with that of the Electoral College.

The U.S. Constitution

After the drafting of the US Constitution in 1787, there was a heated debate between the Federalists, who supported the new Constitution, and the Anti-Federalists, who opposed it. The debate focused on issues such as the power of the federal government, individual rights, and the role of the states, and ultimately led to the addition of the Bill of Rights, which guaranteed certain individual liberties and helped to secure the ratification of the Constitution. The conclusion was the U.S. Constitution which outlined a system of checks and balances and three branches of government. In 1790, the U.S. Constitution was officially ratified, and the Bill of Rights shortly followed. George Washington was elected as the nation’s first president.

Popular Sovereignty

The ideal of popular sovereignty places the people at the center of power rather than a monarch.

The Constitution claims power comes from the people. However, political decision-making power is held by a small group. The ideal of majoritarianism, that the majority should win, has always been an important belief in American political systems.

Republicanism

As stated earlier, the Framers did not establish a democracy. Instead, they established a Republic. A republic is a government that allows for majority rule while protecting the rights of the minority.

In a republican government the people hold the power, the people elect leaders to represent them and act in their interest. It is the leader's job to represent all the people, not just those who voted for them. The Constitution has a means of limiting popular pressure on elected officials.

Separation of Powers

Concerned with unchecked power, the Framers established three branches of government. To avoid tyranny, the powers of the government were separated to limit a majority's concentrating power to the detriment of others.

The Framers envisioned the legislative branch as the most powerful and separated it into the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Checks and Balances

A system of checks and balances was put in place to prohibit one branch of government from concentrating too much power. This was done by creating shared powers across the branches of government.

Federalism

At the time the Constitution was written, most Americans identified with their state prior to the country; however, most of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention wanted to create a more unified nation. A federalist system of government was the compromise.

A federalist system divides power between national and state governments. The federal government is in charge of national issues: defense, taxation, international and interstate trade, etc.

State governments were in charge of local issues: public education, police powers, local infrastructure, licensing, and the state economy. The federalist system also acts as another check on the power of both the state and federal governments.

Separation of Church and State

When the Constitution was written, many nations and states financially supported churches and discouraged or outlawed other religions. Many framers believed an established religion would create problems for the country.

The First Amendment of the Constitution states, “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.”

• The opening line is known as the Establishment Clause, which prohibits the government from favoring one religion and, by effect, establishing an official religion.
• The second clause is known as the free-exercise clause, which bans the government from interfering with practicing one’s religion.

Individual Rights

Many Framers thought the Constitution needed a Bill of Rights that provided protection for individual rights. The Bill of Rights was added to ensure the Constitution was ratified by the states. Ten amendments were ratified by the states and included in the Bill of Rights.

There are three categories into which these rights fall:

State Constitutions

After the establishment of the U.S. Constitution, states were able to draft their own constitutions so long as they did not supersede federal law. The State constitutions establish the framework of state governments and outline the powers and limitations of their branches. State constitutions may have provisions tailored to their own state's needs and can be amended more easily through state-specific procedures.

Sam Adams was a politician and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He is best known for his role in organizing and promoting the Boston Tea Party, a key event in the American Revolution. He also helped to draft the Massachusetts Constitution, which served as a model for the United States Constitution and other state's constitutions. He also served as governor of Massachusetts.

Early Years of the Republic

The early years of the United States as a new republic saw the changing policies of the first presidents, American expansionism, and emerging technologies.

George Washington's Administration (1789-1797)

John Adams's Administration (1797-1801)

Establishment of Judicial Review

The Supreme Court case of Marbury v Madison in 1803 was a landmark case that established the Supreme Court’s ability to Judicial Review. Before leaving office, President John Adams appointed John Marshall as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and one of his first cases was that of Marbury v Madison.

• • The basis for the case was that William Marbury believed his commission to be a Justice of the Peace was purposely withheld by Secretary of State James Madison.
  • Marbury sued
  • Chief Justice Marshall sided with Marbury
  • More importantly, this case established that the Supreme Court had the power to overturn decisions made by Congress (Judicial Review).
  • It also established that the federal courts had a responsibility to interpret and enforce the Constitution

Another Example Under Chief Justice John Marshall

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) The Supreme Court dealt with the issue of steamboat navigation on interstate waters. The case centered on whether a New York law granting a steamboat monopoly conflicted with a federal license issued under the Commerce Clause.

• The Court held that the Commerce Clause gave Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce and that New York's law was invalid because it interfered with federal authority.
• This decision broadened the scope of federal control over commerce between states and reinforced the authority of the federal government to regulate economic activities with national implications.

The Alien & Sedition Acts

The Alien & Sedition Acts were passed in 1798 by a Federalist majority in Congress while John Adams was President. As the U.S. was gearing up for war with France, this law put stricter restrictions on foreign-born citizens (aliens). It also made it a crime for Americans to speak out negatively about the American government.

The laws targeted Democratic-Republicans who tended to side with foreign-born citizens, and only their newspapers met persecution under the Sedition Acts. The Federalists were defeated in the election of 1800, and the Alien & Sedition Acts were repealed.

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions were political statements passed in 1798 and 1799, that were written by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress. The resolutions argued that the federal government had overstepped its constitutional bounds in passing these acts and that states had the right to nullify unconstitutional laws passed by the federal government. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions were significant because they helped to lay the groundwork for the doctrine of nullification and states' rights, which would become important issues leading up to the Civil War.

The XYZ Affair

The XYZ Affair was a political incident that resulted in an undeclared Quasi-War with France. Tensions between France and the United States were heating up after the U.S. declared neutrality rather than support the French Revolution. President Adams sent a team of envoys to France, which included John Marshall, to try to smooth things over. Adams continued to push Congress to prepare for war.

The undeclared Quasi-War with France escalated maritime conflicts, with U.S. naval vessels engaging French privateers. The Convention of 1800 (Treaty of Mortefontaine) ended hostilities. These events caused further tensions between the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.

Election of 1800

The election of 1800 was a fiercely contested presidential race between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. The election marked the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in U.S. history.

Jeffersonian Republicanism

Jeffersonian republicanism refers to the political philosophy and practices of Thomas Jefferson, which were based on the principles of individual liberty, limited government, and agrarianism. His philosophy emphasized:

• a strict interpretation of the Constitution
• a belief in states' rights
• the importance of the common people in politics
• advocated for a non-interventionist foreign policy
• believed in the reduction in government spending and debt

The War of 1812

The War of 1812 occurred under President James Madison and was fought between the United States and Great Britain from 1812 to 1815. The primary causes of the war were:

• British impressment of American sailors.
• British support of Native American tribes in the West.
• The desire of American expansionists to annex Canada.

The war was marked by a number of key battles, including:

• The American naval victories at Lake Erie and Lake Champlain.
• The British burning of Washington D.C.
• The American victory at the Battle of Baltimore
• The Battle of New Orleans was fought after the Treaty of Ghent had been signed but before news of the treaty had reached the combatants.

The war ended in a stalemate, with both sides agreeing to return to pre-war borders and address grievances through diplomacy. Despite this, the war had significant consequences for the development of American nationalism, military professionalism, and foreign relations.

The Panic of 1819

The Panic of 1819 was a financial crisis that occurred in the United States, primarily affecting the agricultural sector and the western states. It was triggered by a decrease in demand for American goods overseas, leading to a fall in prices and profits. Additionally, banks had issued an abundance of loans to people who were unable to pay them back, resulting in bank failures and bankruptcies. President James Monroe and his administration responded by passing protective tariffs to support American industry, as well as the Land Act of 1820, which made it easier for settlers to purchase western land. The Panic of 1819 ultimately led to the development of new economic policies and ideas, including the belief in laissez-faire capitalism and the role of government in managing economic crises. The panic resulted in a depression that lasted until the mid-1820s, and it highlighted the need for better regulation of banks and the economy. With businesses and farms failing in the East, it prompted many Americans to look West.

The Monroe Doctrine

The Monroe Doctrine was President James Monroe’s view on American foreign policy. In a message delivered to Congress in 1823, President Monroe made a statement that the United States would not interfere in European wars, that the U.S. would recognize and not interfere with existing European colonies, but also would no longer tolerate any further colonization in the Western Hemisphere.

The Panic of 1837

Martin Van Buren was the President of the United States during the Panic of 1837, which was a financial crisis that began in the United States and quickly spread to Britain and other countries. It was triggered by a combination of factors, including speculative lending practices by banks, overproduction of goods, and the closure of the Bank of the United States. The panic led to a severe economic depression that lasted for several years and had a profound impact on American society, politics, and economic policies.

Age of Jackson

Andrew Jackson was the 7th president of the United States. He was known as a common man from Nashville, Tennessee. Jackson won by the popular vote and, as president, even suggested eliminating the Electoral College altogether.

Jackson and his political policies became known as Jacksonian Democracy. New political parties emerged as well. The Democratic-Republicans, now Democrats, followed Jackson and the National Republicans or Whigs, who opposed him. Jackson was known for his Native American policies, Federal banking policies, the Nullification Proclamation, and universal male suffrage.

The Second Bank of the United States

In the Supreme Court case, ruling of McCulloch v Maryland, Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that Congress did have the power to create a National Bank under the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution and that Maryland lacked the power to tax the National Bank. President Jackson adamantly opposed the National Bank. When its charter was up for renewal, Congress renewed it, but Jackson vetoed it, declaring it unconstitutional. This was one of the first times in history that a president used his veto power to challenge not only Congress but also the Supreme Court, which had already established that the bank was constitutional.

Native American Removal

Andrew Jackson's role in Native American removal is a contentious and significant aspect of his presidency. His policies and actions towards Native American tribes had a lasting impact on their communities and the history of the United States. Jackson supported and signed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the forced removal of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to lands west of the Mississippi River. The act was driven by the desire to open up fertile lands for white settlement and to expand cotton cultivation, particularly in states like Georgia.

Jackson's policies resulted in the displacement and suffering of thousands of Native Americans, particularly the Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Seminole, and Choctaw tribes, collectively known as the "Five Civilized Tribes." Many tribes lost their ancestral lands, cultural heritage, and lives in the process, with the removal leading to significant death tolls and the destruction of traditional ways of life.

Nullification Proclamation

In 1832, President Jackson issued the Nullification Proclamation stating that states and municipalities are forbidden to nullify federal laws. This statement showed that the federal government was supreme, and Jackson was willing to use the military to show it.

Expanded Suffrage

Jackson believed that voting rights should be extended to all white men. Under Jackson, white men no longer had to own property or pay a poll tax to vote.

Territorial Expansion in the United States

During the expansion of the United States, Native American relations with the United States government were characterized by conflict and displacement. As settlers moved westward, they encroached on Native American lands, leading to numerous battles and wars between the U.S. military and various tribes. The forced removal of Native Americans from their lands, often to reservations, caused immense suffering and loss of life. Despite resistance and resilience, Native American populations suffered greatly from the effects of westward expansion.

Native American Relations

The Louisiana Purchase

In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson negotiated the purchase of a large area of land from France called the Louisiana Purchase. The purchase doubled the size of the United States and gave the U.S. complete control of the Mississippi River.

Jefferson then hired Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the newly acquired territory. Their exploration was known as the Lewis and Clark Expedition.

Mexican-American War (1846-1848)

Under expansionist President James Polk, who believed firmly in Manifest Destiny, the United States entered its first war and fought mainly on foreign soil.

The war started with Texas’s independence from Mexico in 1836, followed by its annexation in 1845. Border disputes along the Rio Grande turned into a full-on war between Mexico (under Gen. Santa Anna) and the United States (under Gen. Zachary Taylor).

In the end, the United States prevailed, and with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the war was over.

The U.S.-Mexico border was established at the Rio Grande, Mexico recognized the annexation of Texas to the U.S., and sold California, Nevada, and New Mexico to the United States for $15 million.

Westward Expansion

After the Louisiana Purchase, citizens flocked to the West because it offered them a chance at true economic independence. People could claim a piece of territory, farm it, improve the land, and become landowners under the Homestead Act of 1862. By the late 1800s, over 6 million people lived in the West.

American Land Acquisitions

• Louisiana Purchase (from France) in 1803
• Annexation of Texas (Texas became a state) in 1845
• Oregon Territory as a result of the Oregon Treaty with the British declaring the 49th parallel the boundary between the United States and British Canada in 1846.
• Mexican Cession as a result of the Mexican-American War in 1848

Challenges Faced by Settlers

• the journey west was long and arduous
• harsh weather and diseases
• conflicts with Native Americans
• difficulty obtaining supplies and goods
• lack of established legal systems and infrastructure

However, many settlers were driven by the promise of cheap land and the opportunity for a better life and were willing to endure these challenges in pursuit of their goals.

Manifest Destiny

In 1845, John O’Sullivan coined the term Manifest Destiny, and this term signifies the cultural belief that the United States had rights and was destined to spread its core beliefs to new lands in the West.

Daniel Boone was an American frontiersman and explorer who helped establish the first settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. He is famous for exploring and settling the Kentucky region, helping to open the way for westward expansion in the United States.

Settlers of the West came from various backgrounds.

• The Taiping Rebellion and Opium Wars in China caused many Chinese to emigrate to the United States, landing in California, and working in the gold mines, silver mines, and on the railroad.
• Irish immigrants escaping the Great Potato Famine also went West to escape persecution in the East. Thousands of Irish flocked West, many working on the railroads.
• Anti-immigrant sentiments on the East Coast caused hundreds of thousands of European immigrants to move West, especially those of Scandinavian and German descent.
• Mormons escaping religious persecution also moved West where they settled in Utah near the Great Salt Lake.

John Gast’s famous painting, American Progress, paints a fairy-tale image of the American West that called for settlers. The reality, however, was that the journey West was arduous, dangerous, and not always successful. The Wild West as it was often called, was quite lawless at times. Additionally, the theory of Manifest Destiny ignores the fact that Native Americans had already lived and developed communities on these lands and were displaced as a result of European immigrant expansion.

Charles Hilliard’s version of Reversing Manifest Destiny depicts a different version of Manifest Destiny.

• The American Progress painting shows opportunity, the expansion of the railroad, increased farmlands, cooperating Native Americans, and an overall happy tone.
• The Reversing Manifest Destiny painting gives a different perspective, one where the buffalo are wiped out, industrialization brings massive pollution, Native Americans are fighting back, and the feelings are dark and angry.

While Westward Expansion did bring a number of technological innovations, such as the Transcontinental Railroad and the telegram, which connected the United States coast to coast, it also brought environmental destruction of the Prairie lands and forests and polluted the rivers, especially due to the gold rush in California.

Sectionalism & the Civil War

The Civil War claimed more American lives than WWI, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War combined. It was devastating to our country and made worse by the fact that we were fighting against each other. The industrial Northern states fought against the agricultural Southern states over the ideas of sectionalism, state rights, and slavery.

Famous abolitionists, such as William Lloyd Garrison and the Gimke Sisters, were instrumental in helping to end slavery in the United States. Garrison is best known for his work as the editor of the anti-slavery newspaper The Liberator. The Grimke sisters, Sarah and Angelina, were prominent abolitionists and women's rights activists in the 19th century. They were born into a wealthy slaveholding family in South Carolina but became disillusioned with slavery and moved north to work for the abolitionist cause. They wrote and spoke extensively about the evils of slavery and the need for women's rights, becoming important figures in both movements.

In the end, the Northern Union states would defeat the Southern Confederate states and the U.S. would enter into a period of Reconstruction.

The Spread of Slavery

Despite efforts to limit or abolish the institution of slavery, it expanded across the South, leading to heightened tensions and contributing to the growing divide between the North and the South.

Cotton and the Cotton Gin

• Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin in 1793 revolutionized cotton production, making it much more profitable. As a result, cotton cultivation expanded rapidly across the Southern states.
• The demand for cotton fueled the growth of plantations, leading to increased demand for enslaved labor.

Westward Expansion and Slavery

• The acquisition of new territories through events like the Louisiana Purchase and the Mexican-American War led to debates over whether these territories would allow or prohibit slavery.
• The Missouri Compromise of 1820 and the Compromise of 1850 attempted to address the balance of free and slave states in new territories.

The Domestic Slave Trade

• The internal slave trade, involving the sale of enslaved individuals from the Upper South to the Deep South, contributed to the spread of slavery.
• Enslaved people were often forcibly separated from their families and communities, enduring immense suffering.

Expansion into Texas and Annexation

• The annexation of Texas in 1845 and its subsequent statehood in 1845 brought new slaveholding territory into the Union, intensifying debates over the extension of slavery into western territories.

Fugitive Slave Act of 1850

• The Compromise of 1850 included a strengthened Fugitive Slave Act, which required Northern states to assist in capturing and returning escaped slaves.
• This law heightened tensions between the North and the South and led to increased resistance against the enforcement of the law.

Political Polarization

• The spread of slavery further polarized the nation along regional lines. Abolitionists in the North denounced slavery as a moral evil, while pro-slavery advocates in the South defended it as a necessary institution for their economy.

Cultural and Religious Responses

• The Second Great Awakening sparked debates over the morality of slavery. While some religious leaders defended it, others condemned slavery as incompatible with Christian values.

Abolitionist Movement

• The growing opposition to slavery led to the rise of the abolitionist movement, which advocated for the immediate end of slavery.
• Figures like Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, and William Lloyd Garrison played pivotal roles in advocating for the abolition of slavery.
• Charles Sumner was a prominent Republican Senator from Massachusetts and a leading abolitionist and advocate for civil rights. Sumner believed in full civil and political rights for African Americans and sought to dismantle the system of racial discrimination and segregation in the South. Sumner was famously assaulted on the Senate floor in 1856 by a fellow congressman after delivering a passionate anti-slavery speech known as the "Crime Against Kansas" speech.

The Emergence of a Distinctive African American Culture

Slavery had a profound impact on the emergence of a distinctive African American culture. Enslaved Africans were brought to the United States from diverse regions of Africa and brought with them their own cultural practices, beliefs, and languages. However, as a result of slavery and the conditions under which they were forced to live, enslaved Africans were forced to adapt and synthesize their various cultural traditions into a new African American culture.

Overall, slavery had a profound impact on the emergence of African American culture, shaping music, language, religion, and other aspects of daily life. Despite the many hardships and injustices of slavery, enslaved Africans were able to adapt and synthesize their various cultural traditions into a rich and vibrant African American culture that continues to evolve and flourish today.

The tremendous economic differences between the North and the South created different feelings of American identity. These differences became so vast that the country no longer felt united. This concept of Sectionalism was an essential cause of the Civil War.

Major Events & Key Concepts of the Civil War

Northern states had a huge advantage over Southern states in that most of the industries (factories) in America were located in the North. Southern states, while not as well equipped, were strongly united in identity and purpose.

Major Events

• Fort Sumter, NC (1861) - First battle of the Civil War where Confederate troops fired on federal troops, effectively starting the Civil War. Southern states, who had not yet ceded, did so after this battle.
• First Battle of Bull Run (1861) - General Stonewall Jackson caused thousands of Union troops to retreat back to Washington D.C. establishing this would not be a quick war.
• Battle of Antietam, MD (1862) - The bloodiest single-day battle in American history effectively halted Confederate advances into Maryland.
• The Civil War draft Riots- A series of violent riots that occurred in New York City from July 13-16, 1863. The riots were sparked by the passage of the Enrollment Act, which required all able-bodied men between the ages of 20 and 45 to register for military service in the Union Army.
• Emancipation Proclamation (1863) - Issued by President Lincoln, this proclamation freed all slaves in America but was not recognized by the Southern states. Freed slaves in the North rapidly joined the Union army.
• Battle of Gettysburg, PA (1863) - Another bloody battle fought in Pennsylvania saw massive casualties on both sides, up to 60% of Confederate soldiers fighting that day, died.
• Capture of Atlanta: General William Tecumseh Sherman orchestrated the successful capture of Atlanta in September 1864. This victory boosted Northern morale and played a crucial role in President Lincoln's re-election later that year.
• March to the Sea: In 1864, Sherman and his "total war" strategy led his troops on a campaign from Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia. The march covered around 300 miles and aimed to cut off Confederate supply lines and weaken their ability to wage war. The destruction of infrastructure and resources along the way made a significant impact.
• Election of 1864 - Was significant because it ensured the continuation of the war and also solidified the Republican Party's control of the federal government.
• Carolinas Campaign: In 1865, Sherman executed a campaign through the Carolinas, further applying his "total war" approach. His forces captured Columbia, South Carolina, and helped hasten the Confederacy's collapse.
• Appomattox Court House Surrender (1865) - General Lee surrenders
• Lincoln’s Assassination (1865) - Just after General Lee’s surrender and on the brink of Union victory, John Wilkes Booth shot and killed President Lincoln at Ford’s Theater.

The Leadership of Abraham Lincoln During the War

Abraham Lincoln's leadership during the Civil War was marked by his steadfast commitment to preserving the Union and ending slavery. Through his strategic decisions, effective communication, and ability to navigate political challenges, Lincoln managed to maintain support for the Union cause, issued the Emancipation Proclamation to change the war's moral dimension, and eventually saw the Union emerge victorious, despite the immense challenges posed by the conflict.

Role and Perspectives During the War

Cost and Consequences of the Civil War

• The Civil War resulted in staggering human casualties, with hundreds of thousands of soldiers and civilians losing their lives. The physical destruction of infrastructure, cities, and farmland also left a lasting impact.
• The Emancipation Proclamation and the eventual abolition of slavery marked a significant turning point for African Americans. However, they still faced discrimination, violence, and challenges to their newly gained freedom.
• The war led to changes in women's roles, as many took on new responsibilities in the absence of men at home. The war also contributed to the growth of the women's suffrage movement, as women sought greater political participation.
• Former slaves embraced emancipation and sought to build new lives despite challenges. Many pursued education, family reunification, and economic independence.
• The collapse of the plantation economy in the South led to the rise of sharecropping, a system where freedmen worked land owned by others in exchange for a share of the crops. This system often trapped them in cycles of debt and limited economic mobility.
• In the former Confederacy, the rise of the Democratic Party as the dominant political force effectively established a one-party system, limiting political diversity and contributing to the entrenchment of white supremacy.
• The war accelerated economic changes, leading to increased industrialization in the North and the growth of a more diverse economy. The South faced economic challenges, including the need to rebuild infrastructure and adapt to new labor systems.

Civil War Amendments

The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments are known as the Civil War Amendments, as they were issued as a result of the Civil War.

Reconstruction (1865-1877)

Following the Civil War, the United States was in shambles. In 1865, President Andrew Johnson announced his plan for Reconstruction.

The idea of Reconstruction was to form a plan to reintegrate the Southern states and the newly freed people (about 4 million) into the Union.

President Johnson’s Reconstruction Plan

Under Johnson’s administration, all Southern land that had been abandoned or confiscated by the military during the war was redistributed to the newly freed former slaves.

• Congress established the Freedmen’s Bureau to help settle the formerly enslaved people on these lands and to help build schools, houses, and hospitals.
• Southern states were permitted to establish “Black Codes,” which restricted black Americans voting and labor rights.
• Many black Americans resorted to sharecropping to survive.
• Johnson’s hands-off approach to Reconstruction in the South, coupled with his veto over the 14th Amendment and the 1868 Civil Rights Act, resulted in his impeachment by the Republican majority in Congress.

Johnson's Impeachment

The conflict reached a climax when President Johnson clashed with Congress over the Tenure of Office Act, which limited his ability to remove certain government officials without Senate approval. Johnson defied the act, leading to his impeachment by the House of Representatives in 1868. He was acquitted by a narrow margin in the Senate and remained in office. The conflict between President Johnson and Congress during Reconstruction underscored the challenges of rebuilding a nation torn apart by civil war and navigating the contentious issues of civil rights, racial equality, and the role of the federal government in shaping the future of the United States.

Radical Reconstruction

Thaddeus Stevens was a Republican Congressman from Pennsylvania and a leading Radical Republican during the Reconstruction era. He was a fierce advocate for civil rights and equality, particularly for African Americans. He believed in punishing the Southern states for secession and fought for more aggressive Reconstruction policies that would ensure political and civil rights for freed slaves. Stevens played a key role in crafting and passing important legislation, including the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Fourteenth Amendment, which granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and guaranteed equal protection under the law. He was instrumental in passing the Reconstruction Act.

The Reconstruction Act of 1867 would divide the South into 5 military zones to be overseen by Northern soldiers. This gave Northerners the confidence to move South looking for economic opportunity and, sometimes, exploitation of the Southern situation.

• These Northerners were called carpetbaggers.
• Southern sympathizers of Radical Reconstruction were known as scalawags to true Southern Democrats.
• It wasn’t until the Compromise of 1877 that the Southern Democrats and the Republicans finally came to an agreement.
• Republican Rutherford Hayes would be elected president of the United States, and as a result, President Hayes pulled all troops out of the South.
• Southern Democrats swept in across the South and created new state laws that would disenfranchise black Americans.
• Groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacist group, were established, and Black Codes gave way to Jim Crow Laws all across the South.
• It would be almost 100 years, until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, before black Americans would be free of Jim Crow Laws.

Module 6

The Gilded Age

The American economy boomed in the 1870s and 1880s, also referred to as The Gilded Age, due to increasing industrialization in the North and an abundance of labor from new immigrants. Heavy industry was at the center of this boom in industrialization, and this time became known as the Second Industrial Revolution.

Power and wealth were concentrated in the hands of monopolies, which eliminated competition. Americans began to demand government intervention in the economy.

The concentration of wealth was justified by Social Darwinism (survival of the fittest), and Gospel of Wealth, which claimed that the wealthy were made rich by God and were more deserving of it.

Immigration

20 million people immigrated to the United States between 1880-1920.

• Immigrants came from southeastern and northwestern Europe, Asia, Mexico, and Canada in North America.
• By 1890, the federal government had assumed the responsibility of processing immigrants arriving in the United States.
• By 1892, Ellis Island was opened in New York City.
• In 1910, Angel Island, in San Francisco Bay, opened.

Throughout the 1870s and 80s, many of these immigrants settled in the West, seeking land on the frontier. They worked as farmers and laborers, building the infrastructure that allowed the nation’s growth.

Increased industrialization created thousands of low-skilled, labor-intensive jobs in cities across the country, and many of these jobs went to new immigrants. The impact of immigration was felt throughout the nation, from Pittsburgh steel mills to New York’s garment district and California’s farms.

Nativism arose out of the tensions between native-born Americans and newly arrived immigrants. Competition over jobs and a fear of the unknown, perpetuated by myths and propaganda, helped shape nativism into a strong political movement. Nativist sentiment led to calls to restrict immigration.

The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 banned citizenship for Chinese Americans and ended immigration from China.

The Rise of the Urbanization in the East

Industrialization led to huge population growth in urban centers; by 1900, 40% of Americans lived in cities. People moved from rural areas to large urban locations. A surplus of rural labor and immigration from Europe led to increased urbanization. This shift from agrarian to urban lifestyles supported the growth of industrial centers.

Overcrowding, disease, and crime-plagued many urban communities. Metropolitan centers struggled with pollution and sewage. Corruption in local leadership often blocked needed improvements. Cities also grew upwards; the first skyscrapers were built in Chicago and New York in the late 1880s.

The poor lived in overcrowded, unsanitary, and unsafe housing, called tenements. Apartments were dark and airless, with interior windows facing narrow light shafts, if there were windows at all. With a series of newspaper articles and then a book entitled How the Other Half Lives, published in 1889, Jacob Riis turned tenement reform into a crusade.

The Wild West

The settlement of the trans-Mississippi West was a complex process that involved several frontiers, including mining, ranching, and farming. The expanding settlement of the United States had a profound impact on the Native Americans.

The American Renaissance

The American Renaissance refers to a cultural and literary movement that took place in the United States during the mid-19th century, roughly spanning from the 1830s to the 1860s. It was characterized by a flourishing of artistic and intellectual achievements that reflected a growing sense of national identity, creativity, and literary excellence. The American Renaissance marked a period of reinvigoration and revitalization in American literature. Writers during this time sought to establish a distinctive American literary tradition that would rival the great works of European literature.

• Transcendentalist thinkers, such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, emphasized the importance of intuition, individualism, and the connection between humans and nature.
• Several prominent literary figures emerged during the American Renaissance, including Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman, Emily Dickinson, and Henry James.
• Authors like Mark Twain, Henry James, and Edith Wharton depicted everyday life and explored the complexities of human nature.

The U.S. as a World Power

Imperialism refers to the expansion of political, cultural, and technological influence beyond the borders of a country.

United States Imperialism

The 2nd presidential term of Grover Cleveland (1893-1897) saw a foreign policy stance that was marked by a focus on American interests and non-intervention. However, the Economic Panic of 1893, coupled with the “closing” of the American Western frontier and the extensively overcrowded urban centers in the United States, caused politicians to begin looking outward for relief.

Great Britain, France, Germany, Spain, and Belgium already had multiple colonies throughout the world. Most recently, European nations had carved up Africa for colonization. Americans’ early view of Manifest Destiny was to settle the U.S. from coast to coast. However, during the early 1900s, Manifest Destiny took on a new look to go beyond the borders of the United States and spread throughout the Pacific Ocean.

Reasons for Expansion (Imperialism)

• Social Darwinism: The U.S. must expand in order to survive. The U.S. needed more land and resources in order to keep up with the growing population and remain competitive with European Nations. Also, the belief that white people are superior and should spread their superiority across the world.
• Spread Christianity: This is the belief that Christianity is the superior religion and that Americans had a duty to bring “backward” people the values of Christianity.
• Business Expansion: The U.S. economy was booming, and companies began building factories overseas. U.S. companies began claiming land in foreign nations to exploit the resources there, reduce tariffs, and take advantage of cheaper labor.
• Military Interests: International competition for colonies would leave America behind if we didn’t have our own colonies. The U.S. needed to exert its strength in the eyes of European superpowers. Alfred Thayer Mahan suggested that the U.S. should seize strategic ports for international trade and suggested the need for a canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

Spanish-American War

The Spanish-American War of 1898 lasted only a few short months. The United States battled Spain in the Philippines and Cuba.

The Tariff of 1894, restricting sugar imports to the U.S. from Cuba dramatically affected the economy of Cuba, which led to the Cuban Revolution against Spain. Americans backed Cuba in the Revolution and launched an attack against Spain in the Philippines.

As a result, the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico would become American territories. While Guam and Puerto Rico remain American territories, the Philippines gained their independence in 1946.

Causes of the Spanish-American War

• Cuban Revolution
• Proximity of Cuba to the U.S. (90 miles South of Florida)
• Yellow Journalism (sensationalistic or biased stories that newspapers presented as truth)
• The De Lome Letter (written by the Spanish-American ambassador who called President McKinley weak)
• The Sinking of the Battleship USS Maine in Havana, Cuba

Results of the Spanish-American War

• Teller Amendment (allowed for American troops to have a presence in Cuba, but Cuba would be independent)
• Teddy Roosevelt’s Rough Riders gain international recognition
• Platt Amendment (Cuba was prohibited from making treaties with other countries, forced to cede Guantanamo Bay to the US, and the US has "the right to intervene for the preservation of Cuban independence)
• Philippine-American War - Filipinos did not want to be a U.S. territory
• 1904 World’s Fair Exhibit of Filipinos and the poor treatment of Filipinos under American occupation until their independence in 1946

Annexation of Hawaii and Alaska

The U.S. Annexed Hawaii

The United States had missionaries in Hawaii as early as the 1820s, but it was sugar and fruit plantations that drew American attention. Big businessmen such as Sanford Dole wanted to seize Hawaii from its queen, Liliuokalani.

Queen Liliuokalani worked tirelessly to keep Hawaii from becoming a colony but eventually failed. Hawaii was annexed as a U.S. territory in 1900 and became a state in 1959.

The U.S. Annexed Alaska

On March 30, 1867, the United States purchased Alaska from Russia for a price of $7.2 million. The Treaty with Russia was negotiated by Secretary of State William Seward and Russian Minister to the United States Edouard de Stoeckl.

In Alaska, the Americans saw a potential for gold, fur, and fisheries, as well as more trade with China and Japan. The Americans believed that acquiring Alaska would help the U.S. become more powerful in the Pacific. Alaska would not be granted statehood until 1959.

The Progressive Era (1890s - 1930s)

The Progressive Movement in the United States was a social movement during the late 19th and early 20th centuries that focused on social, political, and economic reforms.

The Panic of 1893 saw two of the largest companies in the United States completely collapse. The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad and the Cordage Company closed their doors, causing a huge stock market panic. Thousands of railroads, banks, and steel companies would also fall to bankruptcy that year. This disaster led to some political realignment and the birth of several reform movements. It also led to American Imperialism.

The Populist Party

Also called the People’s Party, the Populist Party had roots in the Greenback Party.

• • The Greenbacks were influenced by local Granges, farming community groups, who wanted labor reforms, such as an 8-hour workday.
  • The Populists kept the same labor reform platform and added their feelings on banning foreign-owned land in the US and allowing state-controlled railroads.
  • The 16th Amendment (income tax) and the 17th Amendment (direct election of senators) were a part of the Populist agenda.
  • Populists were big supporters of the Temperance Movement, and women had an active role in the party.
  • They lobbied alongside the Women’s Christian Temperance Union for the 18th Amendment on Prohibition in 1919, which was overturned by the 21st Amendment in 1933.
  • William Jennings Bryan, Huey Long, and George Wallace were well-known Populists.

Progressive Reforms

During the Progressive Era, Americans struggled with the problems of industrialization and urbanization. Progressive reformers believed that the government should address these issues, especially those surrounding big business and welfare reforms. Muckrakers worked hard to expose the need for reform, sometimes using Yellow Journalism to appeal to America’s emotions.

Progressive Era Innovations

In the growth of “good” capitalism, many new innovations and inventions were developed to help people and the flow of goods. Famous scientists and inventors such as Henry Ford, Alexander Graham Bell, Albert Einstein, and the Wright Brothers made huge contributions to the Progressive Era.

• • The Wright Brothers created the first airplane, which changed the way people traveled and how goods were transported.
  • Albert Einstein made giant advances in theoretical physics.
  • Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone, changing the way people communicated.
  • Henry Ford invented the Model T, the first car, and changed the world of transportation forever.
  • The Kodak brownie camera was invented and was the first portable camera.
  • Thomas Edison’s innovations in electricity set the stage for electricity becoming common in homes and changed the way we can store food.
  • The Panama Canal was constructed, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

U.S. Participation in WWI

The First World War was also called the Great War and lasted from 1914-1919; however, the United States did not become involved until 1917. WWI began with the assassination of the heir to the Austria-Hungarian Empire, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. It ended with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. With the help of Trench warfare, German U-boats, chemical warfare, tanks, machine guns, and fighter planes, the world saw an unprecedented amount of deaths from a war - 16 million people died.

Mobilization of Public Opinion

• Mexican Revolution: Many Americans were concerned about the neighboring Mexican Revolution over WWI.
• Propaganda: Both government-sponsored and private propaganda campaigns highlighted Germany's perceived aggression and depicted the war as a battle for democracy and humanity.
• Sinking of the Lusitania: The sinking of the Lusitania was a turning point in public sentiment, as it stirred outrage over the loss of American lives and intensified anti-German sentiment.
• Censorship and Espionage Acts: In the Schenck v. United States Supreme Court case, the Court affirmed the conviction of Charles Schenck and Elizabeth Baer for violating the Espionage Act of 1917.
  • Schenck and Baer passed out flyers suggesting the draft was involuntary servitude.
  • The court said that their actions obstructed the “recruiting or enlistment service” during WWI.
  • It also established that Congress could limit speech in times of war and set the “clear and present danger test"
  • The government's Espionage Act and Sedition Act curtailed dissent and stifled anti-war sentiments, aiming to maintain a united front on the war effort.

The Impact of WWI in The United States

Rejection of the League of Nations

The League of Nations was intended to provide a forum for nations to resolve disputes diplomatically, collaborate on global issues, and prevent conflicts through collective security. In the United States, the fight over the League of Nations revolved around whether the country should join the organization or maintain a policy of isolationism. Critics, including some senators, believed that joining the League would involve the U.S. in international conflicts that were not in its direct interest and potentially undermine its sovereignty. Despite President Wilson's strong support for the League, the U.S. Senate ultimately rejected the Treaty of Versailles, which included the League's Covenant, in 1919 and again in 1920. The main opposition stemmed from the belief that the League's collective security provision could draw the U.S. into conflicts without the ability to determine its own involvement. The U.S.'s absence from the League weakened its effectiveness, as one of the world's major powers was not part of the organization meant to prevent conflicts. The failure to join the League was a contributing factor to the U.S. pursuing a more isolationist foreign policy during the 1920s and 1930s.

The Roaring 20s

The Roaring Twenties, also known as the Jazz Age, was a period of cultural, social, and economic transformation in the United States that lasted from the end of World War I in 1918 until the stock market crash of 1929. During this time, there was a surge in consumerism, urbanization, and new forms of entertainment, such as jazz music and dancing. The economy boomed with the rise of mass production and new technologies like the automobile and radio. Women began to break away from traditional gender roles and gained new freedoms and opportunities. However, this period was also marked by social and cultural tensions, including racial and ethnic discrimination, and the era came to a sudden end with the onset of the Great Depression.

Rise in Consumerism

The 1920s saw a period of economic growth and prosperity in the United States. The country experienced a surge in industrial production and mass consumerism, thanks in part to new technologies and production methods like the assembly line and increased availability of electricity. This led to a rise in personal incomes and the standard of living for many Americans. The expansion of credit and installment buying allowed more people to purchase consumer goods, such as automobiles and household appliances. The stock market also boomed during this period, with many Americans investing in stocks and experiencing significant gains. However, the prosperity was not evenly distributed, and many rural areas and industries struggled to keep pace with the urban and industrial growth. Additionally, this economic growth was built on a foundation of debt and speculation.

The Great Migration

The Great Migration refers to a significant movement of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North in the United States, primarily between 1916 and 1970. This mass migration had profound social, economic, and cultural implications for both the African American community and the country as a whole.

The Great Migration refers to a significant movement of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North in the United States, primarily between 1916 and 1970. This mass migration had profound social, economic, and cultural implications for both the African American community and the country as a whole. Here's a summary of the Great Migration:

Causes

• Escaping Racial Oppression: African Americans faced systemic racism, segregation, and violence in the South, which pushed many to seek better opportunities and improved living conditions in the North.
• Job Opportunities: The North's expanding industrial economy created a demand for labor, particularly during World War I, leading African Americans to seek employment in cities and factories.

Patterns and Phases

• First Wave: Between 1916 and the 1940s, African Americans began migrating to northern cities like Chicago, Detroit, and New York in search of better economic prospects and to escape Jim Crow laws.
• Second Wave: From the 1940s to the 1970s, the movement continued, driven by a desire for better education, civil rights activism, and the hope of improved racial equality.

Impact

• Urbanization: The migration led to the growth of African American communities in urban centers, reshaping the demographic and cultural landscape of northern cities. While the North promised better opportunities, migrants faced overcrowded and often substandard living conditions, racial segregation, and new forms of discrimination.
• Labor Force and Economy: African Americans contributed significantly to the industrial labor force, which played a crucial role in the North's economic growth.
• Cultural Renaissance: The migration facilitated the spread of African American culture, including music (like jazz and blues), literature, and art, contributing to the Harlem Renaissance and cultural diversity.
• Civil Rights Movement: The migration led to tensions between African American migrants and white communities, leading to instances of racial violence and clashes. The experiences of migration and urban life inspired greater political activism and civil rights efforts as African Americans sought equal rights and an end to racial discrimination.

The Great Migration represents a transformative period in U.S. history, as millions of African Americans sought new opportunities and confronted the challenges of urban life in pursuit of a better future.

Harlem Renaissance

The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement that took place in the 1920s and 1930s, centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City. It was a time of great artistic, literary, and intellectual growth among African Americans, who were able to express themselves and their culture in new and innovative ways. Key figures of the Harlem Renaissance included writers such as Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and James Baldwin, musicians like Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong, and visual artists like Aaron Douglas and Romare Bearden.

The Harlem Renaissance included the publication of the magazine "The Crisis" by the NAACP, which featured writing and art by African Americans, and the establishment of the Harlem Writers Guild and the Harlem Artists Guild, which provided support and opportunities for black writers and artists. The "Negro Movement" stage play "Shuffle Along" also debuted during this time, which was highly influential in promoting black culture in the performing arts. The movement also included a focus on social and political activism, with organizations like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) playing important roles in advancing the rights of African Americans.

Presidential Administrations of the Roaring 20s

The Red Scare

The Red Scare of the 1920s was a period of intense fear and suspicion of communism and radicalism in the United States. It was fueled by a combination of factors, including the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917, labor strikes and protests, and the anarchist bombings of 1919.

The government, media, and general public became increasingly alarmed by the perceived threat of communist and anarchist infiltration in American society. The federal government responded with a series of measures to combat the perceived threat, including the Palmer Raids, in which thousands of suspected radicals were arrested and deported without due process. The fear and suspicion of communism also led to the creation of organizations such as the American Protective League, which was a private citizens' group that worked with the government to identify and prosecute suspected radicals.

These court cases reflect the tension between civil liberties and national security during the Red Scare and illustrate how the fear and suspicion of communism and radicalism led to the curtailment of free speech and other civil liberties.

The Resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) experienced a significant resurgence in the 1920s, fueled in part by a reaction to the social and cultural changes taking place in American society during that time. The KKK of the 1920s was a different organization than the Reconstruction-era KKK, and it primarily targeted not only African Americans but also immigrants, Catholics, Jews, and other groups that it perceived as a threat to American society and values.

The KKK of the 1920s grew rapidly, with membership estimated to have peaked at around 4-5 million members nationwide. The group used propaganda and intimidation tactics to spread its message of white supremacy and nativism, and it also had significant political influence, particularly in the Midwest and South.

The KKK of the 1920s was notable for its use of new media and technology to spread its message, including radio broadcasts, mass-produced literature, and the production of its own films. It also organized large public events, such as rallies and parades, and held cross-burning ceremonies to intimidate its targets and promote its message.

The KKK's influence began to decline in the late 1920s due in part to internal divisions and scandals, as well as increased opposition from civil rights groups and the government. Nevertheless, the group's legacy of racism and bigotry continued to impact American society for decades to come, and it serves as a reminder of the dangers of extremism and intolerance.

The Great Depression

The Great Depression was the industrialized world’s largest economic disaster in history. It began with the Stock Market Crash in 1929 in the United States, but the effects of the crash echoed throughout the world. The Great Depression was characterized by millions of unemployed people, soup kitchens, bread lines, and shanty towns.

Causes of the Great Depression

• Stock Market Crash on Wall Street
• Bank Panics
• Decline in the money supply
• Abandonment of the gold standard in Great Britain
• Over Lending to foreign nations
• Underconsumption of factory-produced goods
• The Dust Bowl plagued the Midwest with drought, famine, and failed crops

Effects of the Great Depression on the United States

The Great Depression dramatically affected the United States. At its peak, approximately 15 million people were unemployed. While President Hoover’s efforts to rectify the situation failed, it was President Roosevelt’s policies that would pull the United States out of the Depression.

President Herbert Hoover's Response

Overall, Hoover's responses to the Great Depression were criticized for their perceived inadequacy in addressing the widespread suffering and economic turmoil. Many Americans blamed Hoover's administration for the crisis and sought more comprehensive relief measures. The perception of Hoover's inaction contributed to his defeat in the 1932 presidential election, paving the way for Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal and a more interventionist approach to addressing the Depression.

President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's Response

Franklin D. Roosevelt's election as President in 1932 marked the beginning of Democratic dominance, as he brought innovative policies under the New Deal to address the economic crisis. FDR continually addressed the nation via radio in his Fireside Chats about his plans for recovery called the New Deal. Within FDR’s First 100 Days, he called for the end of Prohibition (21st Amendment) and the beginning of the New Deal legislation. As a result of this legislation, African Americans and women in the federal workforce increased tremendously.

New Deal Legislation

The New Deal resulted in significant changes to the way state and federal governments work. Congress granted Roosevelt new authority, and Roosevelt used that to create the Executive Office of the President in 1939. This led to an expansion of the president's power. New Deal legislation also required states to change their bureaucratic and legal systems.

The New Deal's focus on relief, recovery, and reform resonated with many Americans, and FDR's leadership helped solidify the Democratic Party's position as a champion of economic recovery and social welfare.

Critics of the New Deal

• Despite its popularity, the New Deal faced criticism from various quarters.
• Conservatives: Critics, including many Republicans and business leaders, argued that the New Deal's expansion of government intervention was a threat to individual liberty and free market principles.
• Radicals: Some on the left, such as socialists and communists, felt that the New Deal did not go far enough to address systemic economic inequalities and called for more drastic measures.

First Lady and Advocate, Eleanor Roosevelt

Eleanor Roosevelt played a significant role during the Great Depression and the New Deal era as First Lady of the United States. Her activism, advocacy, and compassionate efforts had a positive impact on addressing the social and economic challenges of the time.

• During the Great Depression, Eleanor Roosevelt visited and interacted with people affected by poverty, unemployment, and social hardships across the country.
• She used her platform to bring attention to the struggles of ordinary Americans and urged government action to alleviate their suffering.
• Eleanor was a strong advocate for women's rights, gender equality, and civil rights.
• She pushed for greater inclusion of women in the workforce and equal pay for equal work, and she supported African American civil rights leaders and their causes.
• Eleanor supported labor unions and workers' rights, often meeting with labor leaders to understand their concerns and advocate for their interests.
• Eleanor encouraged women to become more active in public affairs and to participate in New Deal programs and initiatives.
• She championed programs like Social Security, unemployment insurance, and public housing as vital components of the New Deal.
• Eleanor's commitment to social justice extended beyond the United States. She was an advocate for refugees, displaced persons, and victims of the global economic downturn.

While Eleanor Roosevelt held no official government position, her activism and advocacy transformed the role of the First Lady and contributed to the New Deal's emphasis on addressing the social, economic, and human dimensions of the Great Depression. Her dedication to compassion, social responsibility, and equality left a lasting legacy in the efforts to alleviate suffering and promote social justice during a challenging period in American history.

U.S. Participation in WWII

The Second World War was by far the largest and bloodiest war in world history. The war was fought by the Axis and Allied Powers on two fronts: the European Theater and the Pacific Theater from 1939 to 1945.

WW2 also saw one of the largest genocides in history - the Holocaust. The Japanese invasion of Pearl Harbor would mark the largest military attack on the United States since the Revolutionary War. The ripple effects of WW2 would go on to shape much of the 20th century.

The United States Joins the War

The United States was reluctant to go to war. The U.S.’s isolationist views maintained that the U.S. should not become involved in European wars or alliances. The United States joined WWII over two years after it started with the bombing of Pearl Harbor (Dec. 1941) by the Japanese. After entering the war, the U.S. rapidly mobilized its economy for wartime production. Industries shifted from civilian goods to manufacturing military equipment, contributing to economic recovery from the Great Depression.

Major Battles Involving U.S. Forces

• Under the leadership of the Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army, George C. Marshall, the U.S. employed a dual-front strategy, fighting in both Europe and the Pacific against the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan).
• The Battle of Midway in the Pacific halted Japanese expansion. This major battle was a much-needed American victory after a series of island-hopping battles.
• The D-Day landings in Normandy, France, marked a significant turning point in the European theater.

Impact on the U.S. Economy and Society

• The United States used propaganda, such as the Rosie the Riveter poster, to encourage women to join the workforce, encourage men to join the war, encourage families to start victory gardens, buy war bonds, and to support rationing.
• Propaganda was also used in Germany to create Anti-Semitic feelings. Rations were imposed not only in the United States but also in Great Britain.
• Victory Gardens was encouraged by First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, who suggested that families grow much of their own food so processed foods could be sent to our soldiers overseas.
• War production led to economic growth and job creation, significantly reducing unemployment.
• Women and minorities played crucial roles in the wartime workforce, leading to shifts in social and gender dynamics.

Japanese Internment

Americans grew increasingly uneasy with all of the Japanese immigrants, and so President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which ordered all Japanese immigrants to be placed in internment camps. Approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans, the majority of whom were U.S. citizens, were forcibly relocated to internment camps.

The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb

The decision to bomb Japan was not a light one. Scientists had been working on the Manhattan Project for years in New Mexico. After years of bloody battles in the Pacific, President Truman, under the advisement of Secretary Eisenhower, decided to drop the bombs. In 1945, the U.S. dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan's surrender. The bombings had profound ethical, moral, and geopolitical implications, sparking debates over the use of nuclear weapons.

Results of WWII

Following the war, soldiers returned home to start their families. Women left the workforce to stay at home, and men returned to work. The United States saw a population boom in the years following the war, and that generation is now called Baby Boomers. In 1944, Congress passed the Servicemen’s Adjustment Act, later known as the G.I. Bill, which provided veterans with grants for college tuition, low-interest mortgages, small business loans, job training, unemployment benefits, and full disability coverage and led to the creation of V.A. hospitals.

As a result of WWII, President Eisenhower passed the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act (1956) with the intention of creating a national highway system (today’s interstate highways). The creation of this system changed the pattern of community development in America. The increased mobility as a result of the interstate highway system spurred substantial growth in interstate commerce and suburbanization.

Teaching the World Wars

WWI and WWII are topics of great interest to most educators and students. Thousands of books and movies have been created based on these events. As a teacher, it is easy to spend days, if not weeks, on these two events alone. However, it is important to remember the standards and your district’s scope and sequence. What do the standards ask your students to know and be able to do? How much time can you devote to these events?

It is also important to consider your students' ancestry. Students of Japanese, German, or Jewish descent may have different feelings and family experiences. Aligning your lessons to the standards is always important, particularly when teaching content from multiple perspectives.

The Cold War in the United States

The Cold War was a period of political and military tension between the United States and the Soviet Union that lasted from the end of World War II in 1945 until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The conflict was characterized by a global struggle for influence and power between two superpowers with opposing ideologies: capitalism and democracy in the United States and communism in the Soviet Union. The US and the Soviet Union engaged in a nuclear arms race and engaged in proxy wars around the world, with the US supporting anti-communist regimes and movements and the Soviet Union supporting communist ones.

Détente was a foreign policy approach that emerged in the 1970s, primarily between the United States and the Soviet Union, aimed at reducing tensions between the two superpowers and promoting cooperation in areas of mutual interest. The word détente comes from the French word meaning "relaxation" or "easing." The policy of détente sought to reduce the risk of nuclear war by promoting arms control and disarmament agreements, as well as by establishing channels of communication and diplomatic engagement between the two countries. It also aimed to promote trade and cultural exchanges between the United States and the Soviet Union in order to foster greater understanding and cooperation.

Some key examples of détente policies and agreements include the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), which aimed to limit the number of nuclear weapons possessed by the two countries, and the Helsinki Accords, which sought to promote human rights and cooperation in Europe.

Key Events of the Cold War

• The Truman Doctrine of 1947 established that the United States would provide political, military, and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces.
• The Marshall Plan extended financial aid to Europe following WWII but was rejected by the Soviet Union.
• In 1949 the United States joined NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, where essentially all member states agreed that if one member is attacked, all other members will support and defend that member.
• George F. Kennan's concept of "containment," which was outlined in the "Long Telegram" and the "X Article," as a strategy to prevent the spread of communism and Soviet influence.
• The US launched its first satellite, Explorer 1, in 1958 and created NASA.
• The 1950s saw the rise of McCarthyism and the Red Scare in America.
• This was the 2nd Red Scare in US history led by Senator McCarthy.
• McCarthy helped to fund the House of Unamerican Activities Committee (HUAC), which was responsible for the interrogation of Hollywood Blacklist members (those accused of being Communist).
• In 1960, the Great Seal Bug was discovered, confirming America’s suspicion of Russian spies.
• In 1961, President Kennedy promised to put a man on the moon. In 1969, the US succeeded.
• The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 shook Americans when the Soviet Union stored missiles in Communist Cuba, just 90 miles South of Florida.
• As a response, President Kennedy initiated a naval blockade around Cuba.
• In 1968, the US, UK, and USSR signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty designed to stop the spread of nuclear weapons.
• The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were a series of negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union that aimed to limit the number of nuclear weapons each country possessed. The first SALT agreement, signed in 1972, limited the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) each country could possess.
• The second SALT agreement, signed in 1979, aimed to limit the number of nuclear warheads each country could possess.

The Cold War shaped American foreign policy for decades, leading to military interventions, covert operations, and the formation of alliances such as NATO. It also had a significant impact on American society and culture, shaping popular culture, political discourse, and the national psyche.

The Korean War (1950-1953)

The Korean War began when North Korean forces, supported by the Soviet Union and China, invaded South Korea in June 1950. The U.S. and other Western nations viewed the invasion as a threat to the spread of communism and international stability. The United States, under President Harry S. Truman, swiftly intervened to support South Korea. The U.S. led a United Nations coalition in providing military assistance to South Korea to repel the North Korean forces. The war saw a series of back-and-forth battles along the Korean Peninsula. U.S. forces, alongside their allies, engaged in combat against North Korean and Chinese troops. The war reached a stalemate along the 38th parallel, resulting in an armistice agreement in 1953 that effectively ended the fighting.

General Douglas MacArthur, the commander of U.S. and UN forces, advocated for a more aggressive approach, including the possible use of nuclear weapons against China. His disagreements with President Truman over war strategy led to his dismissal from command in 1951.

The Korean War resulted in significant casualties and destruction on both sides. The war left the Korean Peninsula divided along the 38th parallel, with the creation of North Korea (communist) and South Korea (non-communist). The conflict highlighted the tensions and ideological struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

The Vietnam War (1964-1975)

U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War was a complex and contentious period that lasted from the mid-1950s to 1975. The Vietnam War emerged from the struggle for control over Vietnam, which had been colonized by the French. The Geneva Accords of 1954 temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel, creating North Vietnam (communist) and South Vietnam (non-communist). The U.S. gradually increased its involvement in Vietnam to prevent the spread of communism. The Gulf of Tonkin incident in 1964 led to the U.S. Congress passing the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, authorizing President Lyndon B. Johnson to use military force in Vietnam. The U.S. employed both conventional and unconventional tactics, including heavy bombing campaigns and the use of chemical defoliants like Agent Orange. Opposition to the war grew, with protests, demonstrations, and a cultural divide that reflected broader social and political changes.

American Anti-War Sediments

• Initially, the American public supported the war in Vietnam, but after heavy American casualties and the institution of the draft, opinions began to change.
• Many returning American soldiers suffered from terrible PTSD and looked to drugs for relief.
• 35,000 people stationed themselves outside of the Pentagon in a massive Vietnam War Protest.
• In 1969, 250,000 people gathered in Washington, D.C., to protest the war.
• Anti-war protests sprang up all over America. A Vietnam War Protest at Kent State in Ohio turned deadly when a National Guard shot and killed 4 college students.
• Roughly half a million American men fled to Canada to escape conscription. Nixon would end the draft in 1972.

Results of the War

• As a result of the war in Vietnam, the 26th Amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, as 18 was the age at which one could be drafted into the war; therefore, they should have voting rights.
• In 1971 the New York Times published the Pentagon Papers, top secret documents that showed that President Nixon had ramped up the war in Vietnam.
• The War Powers Act of 1973 was designed to check the president’s power when it came to war and stipulated that the president must notify Congress within 48 hours of military action and prohibits armed forces from remaining for more than 60 days.
• In 1973, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (under the Nixon administration) negotiated a peace treaty with Vietnam
  • Kissinger won a Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts.
• The US spent over $120 billion on the Vietnam War, which led to massive inflation.

Social & Political Changes in the U.S.

The counterculture was an anti-establishment cultural phenomenon that developed and spread during the 1960s, primarily among White college students.

The New Left was a White college student movement that advocated for democracy, civil rights, and various types of social reforms (involving gay rights, drugs, and environmentalism) and protested against the Vietnam War.

Students for Democratic Society (SDS) was an American student organization that was founded in 1959 (and lasted until 1969). It was made up of college students, and it advocated for participatory democracy, direct action, and student power.

Feminism- The role of women as full-time homemakers was challenged again during the counter-culture movement in the 1960s. Betty Friedan, a feminist, published The Feminine Mystique, which influenced second-wave feminism
Environmentalism- During the 1960s, books such as The Silent Spring by Rachel Carson and The Population Bomb by Paul Ehrlich influenced people to become more aware of how they were hurting the environment and how they could preserve it. Environmental consciousness grew, leading to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970 and the rise of movements for conservation and sustainable practices. Consumer advocacy campaigns focused on safety, transparency, and ethical business practices have reshaped consumer behavior and corporate practices.

Gay Liberation - The gay liberation movement of the 1960s encouraged those who were gay or lesbian to come out publicly as a form of political activism and to demonstrate gay pride. The fight for racial, gender, and LGBTQ+ equality continues, with progress made through grassroots movements and legal battles. The Obergefell v. Hodges Supreme Court case in 2015 held that states must allow and recognize same-sex marriages under the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the 14th Amendment. In his majority opinion, Justice Kennedy concluded that the fundamental right to marry cannot be limited to heterosexual couples.

Hippies - Hippies, or flower children, are most associated with the counterculture. The hippies wanted to get back to nature and didn't want to conform to society's norms. They didn't believe in politics and hoped to change society by dropping out of it. People expressed themselves by dressing differently, experiencing different aspects of life (drugs/sex), and promoting peace.

The counterculture movement impacted society in many ways. First of all, it brought up important aspects of life, such as civil rights, anti-war, saving the environment, gay liberation, and feminism. Peaceful protest was common and has continued today. The counterculture was a chance for people to express themselves and not conform to culture's standards.

The Baby Boom & Rise of Suburbanization

The Baby Boom and the rise of suburbanization was a demographic phenomenon that occurred in the United States following World War II (1946-1964), as millions of Americans sought to leave urban areas and establish homes in more spacious and less crowded suburban communities. The effects of the Baby Boom and the Rise of Suburbanization included:

• Approximately 76 million babies were born during this period.
• The development of the interstate highway system.
• The availability of affordable housing led to the growth of the middle class.
• The a significant increase in the number of colleges and universities.
• An increased demand for skilled workers.
• Americans were driven by a desire for privacy, safety, and a better quality of life.
• Suburbs were designed to be self-contained communities, with houses, schools, shopping centers, and parks all within easy reach.

The Baby Boom and the growth of suburbanization had significant impacts on American society, including increased demand for housing, education, and consumer goods, as well as changes in transportation patterns and shifts in political and economic power. The passage of the G.I. Bill in 1944 provided funding for veterans to attend college and led to a surge in college enrollments in the post-war period, which led to an increase in skilled labor. Baby Boomers and Suburbanization remain an important part of American history and demographics and continue to shape the country in many ways.

Impact of Immigration on the U.S.

The U.S. has witnessed substantial demographic changes with shifts in racial and ethnic composition due to immigration and internal migration. Immigration has contributed to the U.S.'s cultural mosaic, with waves of immigrants from various regions shaping American society. Growing diversity has enriched American culture while also raising discussions about identity, representation, and social integration. Immigration debates have centered on issues such as border security, DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals), and comprehensive immigration reform.

The Bracero Program

The Bracero Program was a series of diplomatic accords between Mexico, and the United States signed in 1942 that brought millions of Mexican immigrants to the United States to work on short-term agricultural labor contracts.

The program was criticized because workers often faced discrimination, harsh working conditions, and virtually no job security.

The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

Immigration plummeted during the global depression of the 1930s and World War II. After the war, Congress passed special legislation enabling refugees from Europe and the Soviet Union to enter the United States. Following the communist revolution in Cuba in 1959, hundreds of thousands of refugees from that island nation also gained admittance to the United States.

In 1965, Congress passed the Immigration and Nationality Act, which did away with quotas based on nationality and allowed Americans to sponsor relatives from their countries of origin. As a result of this act and subsequent legislation, the nation experienced a shift in immigration patterns. Today, the majority of U.S. immigrants come from Asia and Latin America rather than Europe.

The Civil Rights Movement

The Civil Rights Movement was a social justice movement for mainly black Americans seeking equal protection under the law. The Civil Rights Movement took place in the 1950s and 1960s, culminating with the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

This movement includes many prominent Civil Rights leaders such as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and is known for the many landmark Supreme Court cases such as Brown vs the Board of Education.

Early Initiatives

Unfortunately, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments did not come with equality for black Americans. Jim Crow Laws stifled the advancement of black Americans throughout the country. While the Civil Rights Movement did not start until the 1950s, many black Americans began launching equality initiatives in the late 1800s.

• In 1881, Booker T. Washington, a leading African American intellectual, founded the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute (now Tuskegee University) in order to promote the education of black Americans. He also founded the National Negro Business League.
• Ida B. Wells first gained national attention in 1884 when she sued the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad for forcibly removing her from a train car reserved for white passengers. She won her case in a lower court, but it was later overturned by the Tennessee Supreme Court. In 1892, after the lynching of three black men in Memphis, Tennessee, Wells began investigating and writing about the issue of lynching. She published several articles exposing the true motivations behind lynching.
• In 1896, the infamous Supreme Court case of Plessy v Ferguson upheld that segregation was legal so long as the facilities were equal.
  
• In the early 1900s, W.E.B DuBois launched the Niagara Movement, which later became the NAACP. The National Association for the Advancement Of Colored People is one of the oldest and largest Civil Rights associations in the country.
  
• In 1912, the idea of Pan-Africanism was introduced by Marcus Garvey; who also founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association in support of Black Nationalism.
  
• In June of 1941, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, which opened national defense jobs and other government jobs to all Americans regardless of race, creed, color, or national origin.
  
• The Tuskegee Airmen was a group of primarily black Americans who served as military pilots during WWII. Their service led to President Truman issuing Executive Order 9981 in 1948 to end discrimination in the military.

The Civil Rights Movement Continues

The modern civil rights movement in the United States, spanning from the 1980s to the present, has focused on addressing ongoing racial inequalities, promoting social justice, and advocating for equal rights.

Affirmative Action:

• The debate over affirmative action policies aimed at addressing historical discrimination and promoting diversity has continued throughout this period.
• Court cases like Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) upheld the use of race as one factor in college admissions, while others have challenged such policies.

Criminal Justice Reform:

• The movement for criminal justice reform has sought to address issues such as racial profiling, mass incarceration, and sentencing disparities.
• Organizations like Black Lives Matter have brought attention to cases of police brutality and systemic racism in law enforcement.

Voting Rights and Voter Suppression

• Efforts to protect voting rights have emerged in response to voter suppression tactics, including voter ID laws and gerrymandering.
• Organizations have focused on ensuring fair and equal access to the voting process, particularly for minority communities.

Racial Equity and Anti-Racism

• The movement for racial equity and anti-racism has gained momentum, focusing on dismantling systemic racism and promoting equity in various sectors such as education, healthcare, and employment.
• Thurgood Marshall was a trailblazing figure in American legal history, known for his role as a lawyer and the first African American justice on the Supreme Court.
• Jesse Jackson ran for president in the 1980s, bringing issues of racial and economic justice to the forefront of national politics. His campaigns mobilized diverse groups of supporters.
• Barack Obama, the 44th President of the United States, made history as the first African American president.
• Obama's election represented a landmark moment in U.S. history, signaling progress in race relations and inspiring hope for positive change.

Important Reform Movements in U.S. History

The Chicano Movement (1965-1975)

The Chicano Movement was one of the largest civil rights and empowerment movements of Mexican-American people in history. Chicanos were Mexican Americans who were fighting for equal rights as citizens of the United States.

After the Mexican-American War of 1848, Mexicans living in the United States were promised citizenship while still being permitted to preserve their culture, but unfortunately, this was not the case. Mexican Americans met adversaries at every turn and were subjected to the same segregation laws as black Americans. Hispanics were even prevented from speaking their native language, Spanish, in schools.

Increases in Civil Rights legislation, however, led to desegregation, bilingual education, improved conditions for migrant workers, and an increase in Mexican-American representation in our government.

Key People and Events of the Chicano Movement

• Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta form the National Farm Workers Association to fight for better working conditions for migrant workers. His fight was known as the La Causa.
• Chavez’s efforts led to California’s Agricultural Labor Relations Act in 1975. This gave all farm workers the right to unionize and negotiate for better wages and working conditions.
• Thousands of students participated in walkouts all over Los Angeles in 1968 in protest against education inequalities for Latino students.
• In 1970, La Raza Unida Party (political party) was formed in Crystal City, Texas, in support of Chicano Nationalism.
• The Supreme Court Case of Miranda v Arizona established our Miranda Rights where, prior to police questioning, we must be informed of our constitutional right to an attorney and against self-incrimination.
• WWII veteran Hector P. Garcia opened a medical practice in Corpus Christi, Texas specifically to provide affordable care to immigrants, migrant workers, veterans, and the impoverished. He then founded the American G.I. Forum, whose goal was to promote Hispanic Veterans’ Civil Rights.
• Henry B. Gonzalez from San Antonio, TX, spent 37 years serving in the House of Representatives, making him the longest-serving Hispanic member of Congress.

Women’s Rights Movement

The history of the rights of women goes back to early civilizations, but really began to take hold in the United States in the late 1800s. The battle for women’s suffrage was long and arduous but finally came to fruition in 1920 with the 19th Amendment. The fight for women’s rights didn’t stop there, however. After the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, women launched a newly charged Women’s Rights Movement that focused on the control of their bodies and equal pay.

Early Women’s Suffrage Movement

The women's rights movement prior to the passage of the 19th Amendment in the United States was a long and arduous struggle for gender equality. Activists and suffragists, both women and men, worked tirelessly for decades to advocate for women's rights, including the right to vote. They organized protests, marches, and public campaigns to raise awareness about women's suffrage and equal rights, facing opposition and resistance from society and the government. Despite numerous setbacks and challenges, their persistent efforts eventually culminated in the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920, granting women the right to vote and marking a significant milestone in the fight for women's equality.

Modern Women’s Rights Movement

• In 1921, Margaret Sanger founded the American Birth Control League, which eventually became Planned Parenthood. Sanger fought for a woman’s right to use birth control.
• In 1933, Frances Perkins was the first female member of a presidential cabinet and served as FDR’s Secretary of Labor.
• In 1960, the FDA approved the birth control pill.
• In 1963, Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, which launched the modern women’s rights movement. Fridan would later form the National Organization for Women.
• Later in 1963, Congress passed the Equal Pay Act, making it illegal to pay women less for the same job as a man.
• In 1972, the Eisenstadt v. Baird Supreme Court case ruled that the right to privacy includes an unmarried person's right to use contraceptives.
• Also in 1972, Title IX of the Education Amendments banned sex discrimination in schools.
• In 1973, the Supreme Court ruled in Roe v Wade that women had the right to safe and legal abortions (this was overturned in 2022).
• In 1981, Sandra Day O’Connor became the first female Supreme Court Justice.
• In 1993, Kay Bailey Hutchison was elected as the first female senator from Texas.
• Oprah Winfrey's success as an African American woman in the media industry has challenged stereotypes and paved the way for greater representation of diverse voices in the media landscape.
• In 2016, Hillary Clinton became the first female presidential candidate for a major political party.
• In 2021, Kamala Harris became the first female, first Black, and first South-Asian vice president in U.S. history.

American Indian Movement

The American Indian Movement (AIM) was a Native American civil rights organization founded in 1968. AIM aimed to address issues facing Native American communities, including poverty, discrimination, and violence. The organization was inspired by the Civil Rights and Black Power movements and sought to bring attention to the unique challenges facing Native Americans.

AIM engaged in a range of activities, including protests, demonstrations, and legal actions. One of its most well-known actions was the occupation of the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, in 1973, which was a significant event in the ongoing struggle for Native American rights.

AIM also focused on issues such as land rights and sovereignty and advocated for greater political representation and cultural preservation. The organization faced significant challenges, including government surveillance and violence, and was criticized by some for its confrontational tactics.

Despite these challenges, AIM had a significant impact on Native American communities and the broader civil rights movement. The organization helped to raise awareness of the unique challenges facing Native Americans and pushed for greater political representation and cultural preservation. AIM remains an important part of Native American history and the ongoing struggle for civil rights and social justice.

Asian-American Movement

The Asian American Movement was a social and political movement that emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s as a response to the ongoing struggle for civil rights and racial equality for Asian Americans in the United States. The movement emphasized the importance of self-determination, community control, and political empowerment for Asian Americans.

The movement was influenced by the broader civil rights movement as well as the anti-war and anti-imperialist movements of the time. It focused on issues such as racism, discrimination, and political representation and advocated for greater visibility and recognition of Asian Americans in American society.

The Asian American Movement engaged in a range of activities, including protests, demonstrations, and legal actions. One of its most significant accomplishments was the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which removed racial quotas on immigration and allowed for greater numbers of Asian immigrants to come to the United States.

The movement also focused on issues such as language and cultural preservation and worked to establish community-based organizations and institutions to better serve the needs of Asian Americans. Despite facing significant challenges and setbacks, the Asian American Movement remains an important part of American history and the ongoing struggle for civil rights and social justice.

Modern Reform Movements in the United States

Impact of U.S. Leaders on Policy & Culture

Many United States presidents and political leaders had a significant impact on United States policy and culture.

Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren

Chief Justice Earl Warren presided over a Supreme Court known for its groundbreaking decisions that had a profound impact on American law and society. Some landmark cases under Chief Justice Warren include:

• Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).
• Miranda v. Arizona (1966) established the "Miranda rights," requiring law enforcement to inform arrested individuals of their rights before questioning.
• Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) established the right to counsel for criminal defendants, even those who could not afford an attorney.
• Engel v. Vitale (1962) ruled against state-sponsored prayer in public schools, emphasizing the separation of church and state.
• Reynolds v. Sims (1964) ruled that state legislative districts must be roughly equal in population, ensuring the principle of "one person, one vote."
• Loving v. Virginia (1967) struck down state laws that prohibited interracial marriage, affirming the right to marry regardless of race.
• Mapp v. Ohio (1961) established the "exclusionary rule," which prevents evidence obtained through illegal searches and seizures from being used in court.
• Escobedo v. Illinois (1964) ruled that individuals have the right to have an attorney present during police questioning.

Harry Truman (1945-1953)

After the end of World War II, fear over the spread of Communism gripped Americans. The Truman Doctrine promised support to any countries threatened by communism in the world, this led to the Korean War. Containment became the American policy toward Communism.

Harry Truman's Fair Deal was a domestic policy agenda that he presented to Congress in 1949. The Fair Deal aimed to build on the success of New Deal programs introduced by Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1930s and to address some of the social and economic challenges facing the country after World War II, such as:

• The establishment of a national health insurance program
• Increased funding for education
• The expansion of social security benefits
• Measures to promote full employment
• Increase the minimum wage
• Expansion of public housing
• The construction of new hospitals and other infrastructure

Although the Fair Deal faced significant opposition from conservative lawmakers in Congress, some of Truman's proposals were eventually enacted into law. For example, the minimum wage was increased, social security benefits were expanded, and the Housing Act of 1949 led to the construction of millions of new homes across the country. Overall, the Fair Deal represented an important effort to address some of the economic and social challenges of post-war America, and it set the stage for the social welfare programs and policies that would become central to the Democratic Party's agenda in the decades that followed.

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961)

Eisenhower had a more aggressive foreign policy, wanting to liberate communist countries rather than contain them. Eisenhower’s domestic policy was called “dynamic conservatism,” which attempted to balance the budget, lower taxes, and end wartime wage and price controls. Eisenhower's Modern Republicanism also included a commitment to strong national defense and foreign policy. Eisenhower emphasized the importance of maintaining a strong military, and he sought to contain the spread of communism around the world. He also championed international organizations such as the United Nations, and he promoted policies aimed at fostering cooperation between the United States and other nations.

John F. Kennedy (1961-1963)

The election of young John Kennedy was viewed as the start of a new age of liberal American politics. JFK's New Frontier was a set of domestic and foreign policy initiatives that he introduced during his presidential campaign in 1960 and implemented during his presidency. The New Frontier aimed to address some of the social and economic challenges of the time, including poverty, education, and civil rights.

Domestically, the New Frontier included programs such as the Peace Corps, which aimed to promote global peace and cooperation, and the expansion of the federal government's role in education and healthcare. JFK also proposed a series of tax cuts and economic policies aimed at promoting economic growth and reducing poverty. Kennedy wanted a civil rights bill to be passed by Congress, but it did not happen until after his assassination. The Bay of Pigs and Cuban Missile Crisis plagued Kennedy’s attempts at stopping the spread of communism.

Robert F. Kennedy, often referred to as RFK, was Attorney General under his brother President John F. Kennedy, Robert Kennedy played a significant role in advancing civil rights by enforcing desegregation and supporting the civil rights movement. Kennedy was a strong advocate for social and economic justice. He championed anti-poverty programs and initiatives to improve the lives of marginalized communities. He focused on combating organized crime and was instrumental in prosecuting prominent mafia figures. Kennedy's role in managing international relations expanded during his later years, reflecting his commitment to diplomacy and peaceful solutions.

Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1969)

Johnson continued Kennedy’s liberal goals with the Great Society, believing the government should play a role in fighting poverty domestically and intervene internationally. The War on Poverty led to Medicare, Job Corps, the creation of the Department of Housing and Urban Development, Head Start early intervention, and increased funding for education. Johnson’s escalation of intervention in Vietnam was very unpopular.

Nixon & The Watergate Scandal (June 1972)

Conservatism grew in response to the counterculture, failures in Vietnam, and the role of government in public life. President Nixon attempted to delay, stop, or stall liberal social matters that had been advanced by his predecessors. In Vietnam, Nixon engaged in a policy of Vietnamization, which attempted to withdraw American troops with South Vietnamese to take their places. At the same time, Nixon ordered bombing and American troops into Cambodia. Nixon’s presidency ended with the Watergate scandal when he resigned to avoid impeachment.

In the Summer of 1972, several men were arrested for burglary at the Democratic National Committee offices. As it turned out, these men worked for President Nixon’s reelection campaign and were there to steal election documents and place a wiretap on the phones.

Nixon initially denied playing any part in this scandal, but the public believed him. As a result, he was reelected in a landslide victory. However, the truth revealed that Nixon did indeed pay these criminals and used the CIA to impede the FBI’s investigation into the crime.

As a result, the House Judiciary Committee voted to impeach Nixon for obstruction of justice, abuse of power, criminal cover-up, and several violations of the Constitution. Nixon then became the first and only president to resign the presidency (rather than be impeached). Vice President Ford was sworn in and later pardoned Nixon of all crimes.

Jimmy Carter (1977-1981)

During his presidency, Carter established the Department of Energy and Department of Education, protected Alaskan wilderness from development, created a “superfund” to clean up waste dumps, and offered amnesty to those who fled the draft. His presidency was marked by efforts to promote human rights and democracy around the world, as well as a commitment to energy conservation and environmental protection. However, his administration faced significant challenges, including high inflation, an energy crisis, and a deteriorating relationship with the Soviet Union.

Iranian Hostage Crisis

One of the most significant events of Carter's presidency was the Iranian Hostage Crisis, which began in November 1979 when militants seized the US embassy in Tehran and took 52 American hostages. Carter's efforts to resolve the crisis were complicated by the Iranian Revolution and the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in Iran. Despite numerous diplomatic efforts and a failed military rescue attempt, the hostages were held for 444 days and were not released until January 1981, just after Carter left office. The crisis had significant impacts on US foreign policy and public opinion, contributing to Carter's defeat in the 1980 presidential election and shaping US policy towards the Middle East for decades to come.

Reagan & the Moral Majority (1981-1989)

Ronald Reagan was elected president in 1980, and his presidency is significant because his policies would ultimately shape the beliefs of the Republican party into the 21st century.

President Carter’s perceived ineffectiveness led to the election of Reagan. Reagan’s economic policy is known as Trickle-down economics or "Reaganomics", which included tax cuts on the wealthy to allow wealth to trickle down to the middle and lower classes, along with deregulating private businesses and reducing government spending. These tax cuts forced Congress to cut social programs. Reagan’s government invested heavily in the military and engaged in an arms race with the USSR. Reagan was also instrumental in anti-union policies, especially for air traffic controllers. Reagan’s presidency led to many Southern Democrats switching their political allegiance to the Republicans, and Christian fundamentalism became popular among white conservatives.

Jerry Falwell was a prominent evangelical Christian pastor and conservative political activist who had a significant impact on religious and political dynamics in the United States. Falwell founded the Moral Majority in 1979, a conservative Christian political organization that aimed to mobilize religious voters and promote conservative values in American politics. He advocated against social and cultural changes that he perceived as undermining traditional Christian values, including issues related to abortion, LGBTQ+ rights, and family values. Falwell's leadership brought evangelical Christians into the political arena, contributing to the growth of the religious right as a significant political force. A large number of people who supported Reagan were also supporters of the Moral Majority, an evangelical Christian movement that sought to bring Christian fundamentalist views into tangible policies in the U.S.

The Iran-Contra Scandal was a political scandal that occurred during the Reagan administration in the mid-1980s. The scandal involved the sale of arms to Iran, which was under an arms embargo at the time, in exchange for the release of American hostages held in Lebanon by Iranian-backed groups. The proceeds from the arms sales were then diverted to fund Contra rebels fighting against the Nicaraguan government in violation of US law. The scandal led to multiple investigations and several criminal convictions. The Iran-Contra scandal remains a prominent example of government corruption and abuse of power.

Persian Gulf War (1990-1991)

In early 1990, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded nearby Kuwait, claiming Kuwait was siphoning oil from Iraqi oil fields. The majority of the nations of the Arab League condemned Hussein’s invasion and called on NATO for support.

The United States, Soviet Union, and many other European and Middle Eastern countries were quick to side with Kuwait and launched a full-scale attack on Iraq known as Operation Desert Storm.

Led by the U.S. Air Force and ordered by President George Bush, the attack utilized the most current military technology, including stealth bombers, cruise missiles, “Smart” bombs with laser-guidance systems, and infrared night-bombing equipment.

The Iraqi forces were destroyed, and under the terms of the ceasefire, Kuwait would remain a sovereign nation, and Iraq would remove all weapons of mass destruction.

Unfortunately, Hussein was not removed from power, and over the next 10 years, tensions were tight between Iraq and the United States. In 2003, President George W. Bush entered the U.S. into the 2nd Iraq War, where Hussein would be captured and executed for his crimes against humanity in 2006.

The Impeachment of President Bill Clinton

The Clinton impeachment was a political scandal that arose during the presidency of Bill Clinton in the late 1990s. It was sparked by allegations of perjury and obstruction of justice related to a sexual harassment lawsuit filed against Clinton by a former White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. Clinton initially denied the allegations but later admitted to having a sexual relationship with Lewinsky.

The impeachment proceedings were initiated by the Republican-controlled House of Representatives in 1998, which voted to impeach Clinton on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice. The case then went to the Senate for trial, where Clinton was ultimately acquitted on both charges.

The Clinton impeachment was a highly controversial and divisive event in American politics, with Clinton's supporters arguing that the charges against him were politically motivated and not serious enough to warrant impeachment. The impeachment also had significant implications for Clinton's presidency, as it distracted from other policy issues and damaged his public image. Despite the impeachment proceedings, Clinton remained in office and completed his second term as president.

The War on Terrorism

On September 11, 2001, members of the terrorist group al-Qaeda flew two planes into the World Trade Center Towers in New York City. An additional plane crashed into the Pentagon, and one additional plane crashed in a field in Pennsylvania.

In response to these attacks, President George W. Bush launched a war on terrorism aimed at the terrorist groups of al-Qaeda and the Taliban in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Since the start of the war in 2001, leaders such as Saddam Hussein and Osama Bin Laden have been found, captured, and executed for their crimes. Additional people who have been deemed a threat have been captured and imprisoned at the Guantanamo Bay military base in Cuba. The United States still maintains a military presence in Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan as a precaution.

In addition to the United State’s international objectives, the U.S. instituted a few new domestic policies as well.

The U.S. Patriot Act

Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism was enacted with the goal of dramatically tightening U.S. national security, particularly as it relates to foreign terrorism.

The Patriot Act allowed for expanded surveillance abilities of law enforcement, including tapping domestic and international phones; easier interagency communication to allow federal agencies to more effectively use all available resources in counterterrorism efforts; and increased penalties for terrorism crimes.

Since its passage, several legal challenges have been brought against the act, and federal courts have ruled that a number of provisions are unconstitutional.

Department of Homeland Security

Under President Bush, a new cabinet department was created, the Department of Homeland Security. This department is responsible for anti-terrorism, border security, immigration and customs, cyber security, and disaster prevention and management.

Economic Transformation in the U.S.

A number of technological and cultural factors have transformed the United States, both economically and culturally.

The Rise of the Sunbelt

The Sunbelt is a region of the United States that stretches from the southern Atlantic coast to the southwest. It is characterized by warm temperatures, abundant sunshine, and a growing population. The rise of the Sunbelt as an economic and political force began in the post-World War II era, as Americans began to migrate from colder northern regions to warmer southern states.

The growth of the Sunbelt was fueled by a number of factors, including the development of new technologies and industries, the expansion of the federal government, and the rise of new transportation systems, such as the interstate highway system. In addition, the Sunbelt benefited from a favorable tax and regulatory environment, which encouraged business investment and economic growth.

The rise of the Sunbelt has had a profound impact on American politics and culture. The region has become a center of conservative politics, and it has played a key role in the election of Republican presidents such as Ronald Reagan and George W. Bush. The Sunbelt has also influenced American culture, particularly in the areas of music, entertainment, and sports. Today, the Sunbelt remains a dynamic and growing region of the United States, with a diverse population and a strong economy.

Globalization

The end of World War II marked a new beginning for the global economy. Under the leadership of the United States of America, and the technologies of the Second Industrial Revolution, like the car and the plane, global trade started to rise once again. At first, this happened in two separate tracks, as the Iron Curtain divided the world into two spheres of influence. When the Iron Curtain fell, globalization became truly global.

The internet-connected people all over the world in an even more direct way. Instead of having items delivered in a few weeks, they would arrive at one’s doorstep in a few days.

Stagflation in the 1970s

The 1970s saw the unusual combination of stagnant economic growth and high inflation, known as stagflation. This presented policy challenges as traditional solutions to stimulate growth could exacerbate inflation. The oil embargoes imposed by OPEC in response to U.S. support for Israel during the Arab-Israeli conflict led to energy shortages and soaring oil prices, causing economic challenges, fuel rationing, and inflation.

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a trilateral trade agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico that went into effect on January 1, 1994. The purpose of NAFTA was to create a free trade zone in North America by eliminating tariffs and other barriers to trade between the three countries.

NAFTA has had a significant impact on the economies of the three countries, with increased trade and investment leading to job creation and economic growth. However, the agreement has also been controversial, with critics arguing that it has contributed to the loss of American jobs to Mexico and other countries with lower labor costs.

In 2018, the United States, Canada, and Mexico renegotiated NAFTA, resulting in a new agreement known as the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA). The USMCA includes updated provisions related to labor, the environment, and intellectual property, among other areas, and has been hailed by supporters as a significant modernization of the original NAFTA agreement.

The Impact of the Federal Reserve in Modern America

Under the leadership of Alan Greenspan, the Federal Reserve navigated various economic challenges, including the Black Monday stock market crash in 1987, the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s, and the aftermath of the September 11 attacks. Greenspan's actions and statements as Fed Chair had a significant impact not only on the U.S. economy but also on global financial markets and economies due to the interconnectedness of the world's financial systems. Greenspan's economic philosophy often emphasized a belief in free markets and limited government intervention. However, his tenure also included debates over the role of the Federal Reserve in preventing or addressing financial crises.

Innovations that Changed America

Information Age

Technological changes brought dramatic new options to Americans living in the 1990s. From the beginning of the decade until the end, new forms of entertainment, commerce, research, work, and communication became commonplace in the United States. The driving force behind much of this change was an innovation popularly known as the Internet.

Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak developed the first microcomputer in 1976, and the demand for personal computers grew vastly. Personal computers had become widespread by the end of the 1980s. Bill Gates, co-founder of Microsoft, played a key role in the development of the personal computer revolution by creating Microsoft's operating systems, notably MS-DOS and later Windows.

The Internet was developed during the 1970s by the Department of Defense. In the case of an attack, military advisers suggested the advantage of being able to operate one computer from another terminal. In the early days, the Internet was used mainly by scientists to communicate with other scientists. The Internet remained under government control until 1984.

One problem faced by Internet users was speed. The development of fiber-optic cables allowed for billions of bits of information to be received every minute. Companies like INTEL developed faster microprocessors so personal computers could process incoming signals at a more rapid rate.