everything social studies emily

Indigenous Peoples

Haudenosaunee Confederacy (Iroquois Confederacy / Six Nations)

A powerful alliance of Indigenous nations in northeastern North America. Originally made up of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca; later the Tuscarora joined.

Usually allied with: Britain 🇬🇧

Mohawk

One of the nations of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy.

Usually allied with: Britain 🇬🇧

Wendat Confederacy (Huron)

An Indigenous alliance near Georgian Bay that traded extensively with the French.

Usually allied with: France 🇫🇷

Odawa Nation

An Indigenous nation in the Great Lakes region known for trade and diplomacy.

Usually allied with: France 🇫🇷

Wabanaki Confederacy

An alliance of Indigenous nations in Acadia and the Maritime region.

Usually allied with: France 🇫🇷

Donnacona

Chief of Stadacona who met Jacques Cartier in 1534.

Relationship: Initially cooperated with France 🇫🇷

Stadacona (Quebec City)

A St. Lawrence Iroquoian village near present-day Quebec City.

Hochelaga (Montreal)

A St. Lawrence Iroquoian village near present-day Montreal.

Mourning Wars

Wars fought by some Indigenous nations to replace lost community members through adoption or capture.

Doctrine of Discovery

A European belief that Christian nations could claim lands occupied by non-Christians.

Geography

St. Lawrence River

Major river used for exploration, transportation, and trade in New France.

Great Lakes

Important waterways connecting much of central North America.

Mississippi River

A major river explored by the French to expand trade and territory.

Kingdom of Saguenay

A legendary kingdom believed by Europeans to contain great riches and gold.

Explorers & Early Contact

Jacques Cartier

French explorer who made three voyages to Canada and claimed land for France.

Samuel de Champlain

Founder of Quebec (1608) and known as the "Father of New France."

Jean Duval

One of the first settlers in New France who was convicted of plotting against Champlain.

New France

New France

France's colony in North America.

Colony

A territory controlled by another country.

Acadia

A French colony located in present-day Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island.

Port Royal

One of the first permanent French settlements in North America, established in Acadia.

Fur Trade

The exchange of animal furs, especially beaver pelts, for European goods.

Trading Posts

Locations where Europeans and Indigenous peoples exchanged goods.

Seigneurial System

A French land-distribution system where seigneurs rented land to farmers.

Filles du Roi

Young women sent by France to New France to increase the colony's population.

Civil Law

A legal system based mainly on written laws. Quebec still uses civil law today.

Mercantilism

An economic system where colonies supplied raw materials to the mother country.

Imperialism

A policy of extending a country's power over other territories.

Colonialism

The establishment and control of colonies in foreign lands.

Important People of New France

King Louis XIV

King of France who made New France a royal colony in 1663.

King Charles II

King of England who granted the charter for the Hudson's Bay Company.

Pierre-Esprit Radisson

Explorer and fur trader who helped establish the Hudson's Bay Company.

Médard des Groseilliers

Explorer and fur trader who partnered with Radisson to create the Hudson's Bay Company.

Hudson's Bay Company & Rupert's Land

Hudson Bay Company (HBC)

A British fur-trading company founded in 1670.

Rupert's Land

A vast territory surrounding Hudson Bay controlled by the HBC.

Quick Timeline

1534 – Jacques Cartier arrives in Canada.
1535 – Cartier visits Stadacona and Hochelaga.
1605 – Port Royal established.
1608 – Champlain founds Quebec.
1663 – New France becomes a royal colony under Louis XIV.
1670 – Hudson's Bay Company founded.

Indigenous Alliances to Memorize

PART 2: Imperial Wars, Treaties, British Rule, American Revolution & War of 1812 (1700–1815)

Important Places

Louisbourg

A large French fortress on Cape Breton Island that protected access to the St. Lawrence River.

Ohio River Valley

A valuable region claimed by both Britain and France because of its fertile land and fur trade opportunities.

Plains of Abraham

The battlefield outside Quebec City where Britain defeated France in 1759.

Fort Pitt

A British fort in present-day Pittsburgh that became involved in Pontiac's Resistance.

Appalachian Mountains

A mountain range that formed the western boundary of colonial settlement after 1763.

New England

The northeastern British colonies that later became part of the United States.

British North America

Britain's colonies in North America after the conquest of New France.

Province of Quebec

The British colony created after France lost New France in 1763.

Upper Canada

British colony created in 1791, mostly English-speaking. (Present-day Ontario)

Lower Canada

British colony created in 1791, mostly French-speaking. (Present-day Quebec)

Imperial Wars & Treaties

Treaty of Ryswick (1697)

Ended the King William's War.

France and Britain returned captured territories and temporarily stopped fighting.

Remember:

Treaty of Ryswick → Ended King William's War

Treaty of Utrecht (1713)

Ended the War of the Spanish Succession.

France gave Britain:

• Acadia

• Newfoundland

• Hudson Bay territories

Remember:

Treaty of Utrecht → Ended War of the Spanish Succession

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)

Ended the War of the Austrian Succession.

Louisbourg was returned to France.

Remember:

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle → Ended War of the Austrian Succession

Treaty of Paris (1763)

Ended the Seven Years' War (French and Indian War in North America).

France gave most of New France to Britain.

Remember:

Treaty of Paris → Ended Seven Years' War

Important Military Leaders

James Wolfe

British general who defeated the French at the Plains of Abraham in 1759.

Louis-Joseph de Montcalm

French general who defended Quebec against Wolfe.

Jeffery Amherst

British Commander-in-Chief after the conquest of New France.

Guy Carleton

Governor of Quebec who helped defend Canada during the American Revolution.

Allan Maclean

British officer who helped defend Quebec from American invasion in 1775.

Richard Montgomery

American general who invaded Quebec during the American Revolution.

Benedict Arnold

American military officer who participated in the invasion of Quebec.

Pontiac's Resistance (1763)

Pontiac

An Odawa leader who organized Indigenous r in esistance against British rule after the conquest of New France.

Allied with: Odawa and other Indigenous nations

Opposed: Britain 🇬🇧

Biological Warfare

The use of disease as a weapon.

Smallpox

A deadly disease that devastated Indigenous populations.

British Government Changes

Proclamation Line (1763)

A boundary created by Britain that prevented settlers from moving west of the Appalachian Mountains.

Elected Assembly

A group of representatives chosen by voters to make laws.

Legislative Assembly

The elected branch of government.

American Revolution

Taxation Without Representation

The belief that colonists should not be taxed if they have no elected representatives in government.

Loyalists

American colonists who remained loyal to Britain during the American Revolution.

Black Loyalists

Enslaved and free Black people who supported Britain and later settled in British North America.

Book of Negroes

A document listing Black Loyalists who left the United States for Nova Scotia.

Repeal

The cancellation of a law.

Annexation

When one country takes control of and adds another territory to its own.

14th Colony

The idea that Canada might join the American Revolution and become another American colony.

Indigenous Leaders During This Period

Joseph Brant

A Mohawk military and political leader who fought alongside the British during the American Revolution.

Allied with: Britain 🇬🇧

Haudenosaunee Confederacy

Many members supported Britain during the American Revolution.

Usually allied with: Britain 🇬🇧

Mohawk

One of the strongest British Indigenous allies during the American Revolution.

Usually allied with: Britain 🇬🇧

War of 1812

Impressment

The British practice of forcing sailors into the Royal Navy. One cause of the War of 1812.

Martial Law

Military control during an emergency.

Land Speculation

Buying land hoping it will increase in value.

Important People

Isaac Brock

British general who helped defend Upper Canada.

General Hull

American general who surrendered Detroit to Brock.

Laura Secord

Canadian woman who warned British forces about an American attack.

Tecumseh

Shawnee leader who united Indigenous nations against American expansion.

Allied with: Britain 🇬🇧

Tenskwatawa

Tecumseh's brother, known as "The Prophet."

Generally allied with: Britain 🇬🇧

Tecumseh's Confederacy

An alliance of Indigenous nations resisting American settlement.

Allied with: Britain 🇬🇧

John Tutela

A Mohawk leader who supported the British.

Allied with: Britain 🇬🇧

Joseph Barss

Nova Scotia privateer captain who attacked American ships.

Privateers

Privately owned ships authorized by a government to attack enemy ships.

Iroquois Confederacy

Another name often used for the Haudenosaunee Confederacy.

Usually allied with: Britain 🇬🇧

Quick Memorization Chart

Indigenous Allies

Treaties

PART 3: Reform, Rebellions, Responsible Government & Confederation (1815–1867)

Immigration (1815–1850s)

Irish Immigrants

People who came from Ireland to British North America, especially during the Irish Potato Famine.

Coffin Ships

Overcrowded ships that carried Irish immigrants across the Atlantic. Many passengers became sick or died during the voyage.

Grosse Île, Quebec

A quarantine station where immigrants were checked for diseases before entering Canada.

European Immigration

Large numbers of Europeans moved to British North America in the 1800s seeking land and opportunities.

Western Migration

The movement of settlers westward in search of farmland and economic opportunities.

Government Problems Before the Rebellions

Family Compact

A small group of wealthy and powerful people who controlled politics in Upper Canada.

Château Clique

A small group of wealthy and powerful people who controlled politics in Lower Canada.

Clergy Reserves

Large areas of land set aside for the Protestant Church in Upper Canada.

Reform Movement

A movement that wanted governments to be more democratic and accountable to elected representatives.

Equal Representation

When regions receive the same number of representatives regardless of population.

Political Deadlock

A situation where government cannot pass laws because opposing groups block each other.

Dissolution

The ending of a legislative session and calling of a new election.

Important Political Leaders

Louis-Joseph Papineau

Leader of the Parti patriote in Lower Canada and a key figure in the Rebellions of 1837.

William Lyon Mackenzie

Leader of the Upper Canada Rebellion in 1837.

Parti patriote

A political movement in Lower Canada that demanded democratic reforms and greater French Canadian control of government.

Rebellions of 1837–1838

Rebellions of 1837–38

Uprisings in Upper and Lower Canada against colonial governments controlled by elites.

Responsible Government

A system where the executive must have the support of the elected assembly to remain in power.

Lord Durham

Lord Durham

Sent to investigate the Rebellions of 1837–38.

Durham Report

Recommended:

• Responsible government

• Union of Upper and Lower Canada

• Assimilation of French Canadians

Assimilation

The process of forcing or encouraging one cultural group to adopt another group's language and culture.

Act of Union (1841)

Province of Canada

The colony created when Upper Canada and Lower Canada were united in 1841.

Canada West

Former Upper Canada (mostly English-speaking).

Canada East

Former Lower Canada (mostly French-speaking).

Equal Representation

Canada East and Canada West each received the same number of seats in government despite population differences.

Government Structure

Crown

The monarch of Britain, who was Canada's head of state.

Governor General

The monarch's representative in British North America.

Executive Council

A group of advisors who helped govern the colony.

Legislative Council

An appointed upper house of government.

Legislative Assembly

The elected lower house of government.

Responsible Government Achieved

Robert Baldwin

A reformer from Canada West who worked to achieve responsible government.

Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine

A reformer from Canada East who partnered with Baldwin.

Baldwin–Lafontaine Alliance

An English-French political partnership that helped achieve responsible government.

Lord Elgin

Governor General who allowed elected representatives to govern and signed reform legislation.

Responsible Government (1848)

Government became accountable to the elected assembly rather than appointed officials.

Economic Issues

Corn Laws

British laws that protected British grain farmers through tariffs.

Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)

Britain removed the tariffs, hurting Canadian exports.

Reciprocity Treaty (1854)

An agreement between British North America and the United States that allowed many goods to cross the border without tariffs.

Repeal of the Reciprocity Treaty (1866)

The United States ended the treaty, encouraging British North American colonies to consider Confederation.

Political Problems Before Confederation

Representation by Population (Rep by Pop)

The idea that the number of representatives should be based on population size.

Double Majority

A law required support from a majority of representatives from both Canada East and Canada West.

Political Deadlock

Frequent disagreements between Canada East and Canada West that made government ineffective.

American Threats

Manifest Destiny

The American belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America.

American Civil War (1861–1865)

A war between the Northern and Southern United States.

Annexation

When one country takes control of another territory.

Fenian Raids

Attacks by Irish-American groups into British North America after the American Civil War.

Confederation

Confederation

The union of British North American colonies into one country.

Quebec Resolutions (1864)

Seventy-two resolutions outlining how Confederation would work.

Federalism

A system where powers are divided between federal and provincial governments.

All-Party Committee (Great Coalition)

A political alliance formed to solve political deadlock and pursue Confederation.

Fathers of Confederation

John A. Macdonald

Leader from Canada West who became Canada's first Prime Minister.

George-Étienne Cartier

Supported Confederation while protecting French Canadian rights.

George Brown

Advocated representation by population.

Thomas D'Arcy McGee

Promoted a united Canada and opposed American expansion.

Creation of Canada

Dominion of Canada

The new country created on July 1, 1867.

British North America Act (1867)

The law passed by the British Parliament that officially created Canada and established its federal system of government.

Quick People to Memorize

PART 4: Western Expansion, Louis Riel, Immigration & Indigenous Policies (1867–1914)

The West After Confederation

Rupert's Land

A vast territory owned by the Hudson's Bay Company that was transferred to Canada in 1870.

Fort Garry

A Hudson's Bay Company fort located in present-day Winnipeg. It became the centre of the Red River Resistance.

Métis

A distinct people with mixed Indigenous and European ancestry, primarily French and Indigenous.

Allied with: Generally worked to protect their own rights and lands rather than aligning with Britain or France.

Louis Riel

Leader of the Métis during the Red River Resistance and a defender of Métis rights.

Provisional Government

A temporary government created until a permanent government can be established.

Métis Bill of Rights

A list of demands created by the Métis to protect their language, religion, culture, and land rights.

Red River Resistance (1869–1870)

A movement led by Louis Riel to protect Métis rights when Canada took control of Rupert's Land.

Thomas Scott

Thomas Scott

An English Protestant who opposed Riel's provisional government and was executed by the Métis government in 1870.

His execution made Riel a hero to many French Canadians and a villain to many English Canadians.

Manitoba Joins Canada

Manitoba Act (1870)

The law that created Manitoba as Canada's fifth province.

The Act:

• Created Manitoba

• Protected some Métis rights

• Recognized French and English language rights

Indigenous Policies

"Status Indian"

A legal category created by the Canadian government under the Indian Act that determined who was officially recognized as First Nations.

Numbered Treaties

Eleven treaties signed between First Nations and the Canadian government between 1871 and 1921.

Purpose:

• Open western lands for settlement

• Promise reserves, education, and other supports to First Nations

Assimilation

A government policy intended to make Indigenous peoples adopt European-Canadian culture.

Residential Schools

Government-funded, church-run schools that removed Indigenous children from their families to assimilate them into Canadian society.

Many children experienced abuse, loss of language, culture, and family connections.

Indigenous Nations in the West

First Nations

The diverse Indigenous peoples of Canada who are not Métis or Inuit.

Alliances varied by nation. During treaty-making, many negotiated directly with Canada to protect their peoples and lands.

Immigration to Canada

European Immigration

Large numbers of Europeans moved to Canada during the late 1800s and early 1900s.

Western Migration

Movement of settlers into the Prairies and western Canada.

Irish Immigrants

People who moved from Ireland to Canada, especially during and after the Irish Potato Famine.

Coffin Ships

Poorly maintained ships that carried Irish immigrants across the Atlantic.

Grosse Île, Quebec

A quarantine station where immigrants were inspected for disease before entering Canada.

Chinese Immigration

Chinese Immigration

Migration of Chinese workers to Canada, especially to help build the Canadian Pacific Railway.

Chinese Head Tax

A fee charged only to Chinese immigrants entering Canada.

Introduced in:

• 1885 ($50)

• Later increased to $100

• Eventually increased to $500

Purpose:

• Discourage Chinese immigration

South Asian Immigration

Continuous Journey Regulation (1908)

A law requiring immigrants to arrive in Canada directly from their country of origin without stopping elsewhere.

It was designed mainly to restrict immigration from India.

Komagata Maru (1914)

A ship carrying passengers from India that was denied entry into Canada because of the Continuous Journey Regulation.

The passengers were forced to return to India.

Important Terms to Review

British North America

The British colonies in North America before Confederation.

Dominion of Canada

The country created on July 1, 1867.

Federalism

A system where powers are divided between the federal and provincial governments.

Representation by Population

Representation in government based on population size.

Equal Representation

Each region receives the same number of representatives regardless of population.

Political Deadlock

A situation where government cannot function effectively because opposing groups block each other.

Indigenous Alliance Review

Treaties Review

That's still a very large list, so I'll keep the definitions short and test-friendly.

A

Acadia – A French colony in present-day Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island.

All Party Committee (Great Coalition) – A group of political leaders who worked together to solve political deadlock and support Confederation.

American Civil War – A war (1861–1865) between the Northern and Southern United States.

Annexation – When one country takes control of and adds another territory to its own.

Appalachian Mountains – A mountain range that formed the western boundary of colonial settlement after 1763.

Assimilation – The process of forcing or encouraging one group to adopt another group's culture and language.

B

Biological Warfare – Using diseases as weapons against enemies.

Black Loyalists – Black people who remained loyal to Britain during the American Revolution and settled in British North America.

Book of Negroes – A record listing Black Loyalists who moved to British North America after the American Revolution.

British North America – Britain's colonies in North America before Confederation.

British North America Act (1867) – The British law that created Canada and established its federal government.

C

Canada East – Former Lower Canada (present-day Quebec) after 1841.

Canada West – Former Upper Canada (present-day Ontario) after 1841.

Chateau Clique – A small group of wealthy people who controlled politics in Lower Canada.

Chinese Head Tax – A fee charged specifically to Chinese immigrants entering Canada.

Chinese Immigration – The movement of Chinese people to Canada, especially to build the CPR.

Clergy Reserves – Land set aside for the Protestant Church in Upper Canada.

Coffin Ships – Overcrowded ships that carried Irish immigrants to Canada.

Colony – A territory controlled by another country.

Colonialism – Establishing settlements and controlling foreign territories.

Continuous Journey Regulation – A law requiring immigrants to come directly from their country of origin without stopping elsewhere.

Corn Laws – British laws that protected British grain farmers through tariffs.

Crown – The monarch of Britain, Canada's head of state.

Civil Law – A legal system based on written laws; used in Quebec.

Criminal Law – Laws dealing with crimes and punishments.

D

Dissolution – The ending of a legislative session and calling a new election.

Doctrine of Discovery – A European belief that Christian countries could claim lands inhabited by non-Christians.

Dominion of Canada – The country created on July 1, 1867.

Double Majority – A law required support from a majority of representatives from both Canada East and Canada West.

E

Elected Assembly – A group of representatives chosen by voters.

Equal Representation – Each region receives the same number of representatives regardless of population.

European Immigration – The movement of Europeans to Canada during the 1800s and early 1900s.

Executive Council – Advisors who helped govern a colony.

F

Family Compact – A small group of wealthy people who controlled politics in Upper Canada.

Federalism – A system where powers are divided between federal and provincial governments.

Fenian Raids – Attacks by Irish-American groups against British North America after the American Civil War.

Filles du Roi – Young women sent to New France to increase the colony's population.

Fort Garry – A fort in present-day Winnipeg that became the centre of the Red River Resistance.

Fort Pitt – A British fort involved in Pontiac's Resistance.

Fur Trade – The exchange of animal furs for European goods.

G

Governor General – The monarch's representative in Canada.

Great Lakes – A group of large lakes important for transportation and trade.

Grosse Île, Quebec – A quarantine station for immigrants arriving in Canada.

H

Haudenosaunee Confederacy (Iroquois Confederacy/Six Nations) – A powerful alliance of Indigenous nations.

Allied with: Usually Britain 🇬🇧

Hochelaga – A St. Lawrence Iroquoian village near present-day Montreal.

Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) – A British fur-trading company founded in 1670.

I

Imperialism – Extending a country's power over other territories.

Impressment – The British practice of forcing sailors into naval service.

Iroquois Confederacy – Another name for the Haudenosaunee Confederacy.

Irish Immigrants – People who moved from Ireland to Canada, especially during the Potato Famine.

K

Kingdom of Saguenay – A legendary kingdom believed to contain great riches.

Komagata Maru – A ship carrying passengers from India that was denied entry to Canada in 1914.

L

Land Speculation – Buying land hoping its value will increase.

Legislative Assembly – The elected branch of government.

Legislative Council – The appointed upper house of government.

Loyalists – American colonists who remained loyal to Britain during the American Revolution.

Lower Canada – The British colony that became present-day Quebec.

Louisbourg – A major French fortress on Cape Breton Island.

M

Manifest Destiny – The American belief that the United States should expand across North America.

Manitoba Act (1870) – The law that created Manitoba.

Martial Law – Military control during an emergency.

Mercantilism – An economic system where colonies supplied resources to benefit the mother country.

Métis Bill of Rights – Demands created by the Métis to protect their rights and culture.

Mississippi River – A major river explored by the French.

Mohawk – A nation within the Haudenosaunee Confederacy.

Allied with: Usually Britain 🇬🇧

Monopoly – Exclusive control over a product, trade, or service.

Mourning Wars – Indigenous wars fought to replace lost community members.

N

New England – The northeastern British colonies that became part of the United States.

New France – France's colony in North America.

Numbered Treaties – Treaties signed between First Nations and Canada from 1871–1921.

O

Odawa Nation – An Indigenous nation active in trade around the Great Lakes.

Allied with: Usually France 🇫🇷

Ohio River Valley – A region contested by Britain and France because of its valuable land and trade routes.

Oratory – Skill in public speaking.

P

Parti patriote – A political movement in Lower Canada that sought democratic reforms.

Plains of Abraham – The battlefield where Britain defeated France in 1759.

Political Deadlock – A situation where government cannot make decisions because opposing groups block each other.

Port Royal – One of the first permanent French settlements in North America.

Privateers – Private ships authorized to attack enemy vessels.

Proclamation Line (1763) – A boundary limiting settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.

Province of Canada – The colony formed when Upper and Lower Canada united in 1841.

Province of Quebec – The British colony created after 1763.

Provisional – Temporary until a permanent arrangement is made.

Q

Quebec Resolutions – The proposals that outlined how Confederation would work.

R

Reciprocity Treaty (1854) – A trade agreement between British North America and the United States.

Reform Movement – A movement seeking more democratic government.

Repeal – To cancel a law.

Representation by Population – Representation based on population size.

Residential Schools – Schools created to assimilate Indigenous children into European-Canadian culture.

Responsible Government – A system where the executive is accountable to the elected assembly.

Rupert's Land – A vast territory controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company.

S

Seigneurial System – A French land-distribution system where seigneurs rented land to farmers.

Smallpox – A deadly disease that devastated Indigenous populations.

Stadacona – A St. Lawrence Iroquoian village near present-day Quebec City.

Status Indian – A legal category under the Indian Act recognizing certain First Nations people.

St. Lawrence River – A major river used for transportation, trade, and settlement.

T

Taxation Without Representation – The belief that people should not be taxed without elected representatives.

Tecumseh's Confederacy – An alliance of Indigenous nations organized by Tecumseh.

Allied with: Britain 🇬🇧

Thirteen Colonies – Britain's original colonies along the Atlantic coast that became the United States.

Tithes – Payments, usually one-tenth of income or crops, given to support a church.

Trading Posts – Locations where goods were exchanged.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) – Ended the War of the Austrian Succession.

Treaty of Paris (1763) – Ended the Seven Years' War and gave Britain control of New France.

Treaty of Ryswick (1697) – Ended King William's War.

Treaty of Utrecht (1713) – Ended the War of the Spanish Succession.

U

Upper Canada – The British colony that became present-day Ontario.

14th Colony – The idea that Canada might join the American Revolution and become another American colony.

W

Wabanaki Confederacy – An alliance of Indigenous nations in Acadia.

Allied with: France 🇫🇷

Wendat Confederacy (Huron) – An Indigenous alliance that traded extensively with the French.

Allied with: France 🇫🇷

Western Migration – The movement of settlers into western Canada.