Aztecs: A Mesoamerican civilization that existed in Mexico from the 14th to 16th century. They were known for their capital city of Tenochtitlan, their extensive use of chinampas (floating gardens), and their human sacrifices.

Caste System: A social hierarchy system that divides people into different classes based on birth, occupation, and social status. It was prevalent in ancient India, particularly in Hindu society.

ChinampasArtificial islands created by the Aztecs in the lake region of the Valley of Mexico. They were used for agriculture, particularly for the cultivation of crops like maize, beans, and squash.

Zheng He: A Chinese admiral and explorer who led several expeditions during the early 15th century to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa. His voyages helped establish Chinese trade and diplomatic relations with these regions.

Inca: A civilization that flourished in South America from the 13th to 16th century. They were known for their advanced agricultural techniques, particularly the use of terraces, their road networks, and their system of record-keeping using quipus.

Abbasid Caliphate: An Islamic dynasty that ruled over a vast empire from 750 to 1258 CE. They were known for their promotion of learning and culture, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age.

Quipu: A system of record-keeping used by the Inca civilization, consisting of knotted strings of different colors and lengths.

Caliph: A title given to the leader of the Islamic community, particularly during the early Islamic period. The caliph was both a political and religious leader.

Maya: A Mesoamerican civilization that existed in Central America from the 3rd to 16th century. They were known for their advanced writing system, their astronomical knowledge, and their architectural achievements, such as the pyramids of Tikal and Chichen Itza.

Mahayana Buddhism: A branch of Buddhism that emerged in India in the 2nd century CE and spread to China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. It emphasizes the importance of compassion and the pursuit of enlightenment for the benefit of all beings.

Mit’a System: A labor system used by the Inca civilization, in which individuals were required to work for the state for a certain period each year. This labor was used for public works, such as road-building and agricultural projects.

Tenochtitlan: The capital city of the Aztec civilization, located in the Valley of Mexico. It was one of the largest cities in the world at the time, with a population estimated at 200,000.

Black Death: A pandemic that swept through Europe in the 14th century, killing an estimated 25 million people, or one third of the population.

Caravanserai: A type of inn or rest stop used by travelers in the Middle East and Central Asia, particularly along trade routes like the Silk Road.

Champa Rice: A fast-maturing rice variety that originated in Vietnam in the 13th century. It allowed for multiple harvests per year and contributed to population growth and economic development in East Asia.

Foot-Binding: A practice that was widespread in China from the 10th to early 20th century, in which the feet of young girls were tightly bound to prevent normal growth. It was seen as a symbol of beauty and status.

Genghis Khan - The founder and first emperor of the Mongol Empire, known for his military conquests and leadership.

Khanates - The political entities that were established after the death of Genghis Khan, each led by one of his descendants.

Mongols - A nomadic people from Central Asia who were skilled horsemen and warriors, and established a vast empire under Genghis Khan.

Kublai Khan - The fifth emperor of the Mongol Empire and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China.

Song Dynasty - A Chinese dynasty that ruled from 960 to 1279 AD, known for its advances in science, technology, and the arts.

Middle Kingdom - The Chinese concept of their country being the center of the world and the intermediary between heaven and earth.

Civil Service Exam - An examination system in imperial China used to select candidates for government positions based on merit and knowledge of Confucianism.

Yuan Dynasty - The dynasty in China established by Kublai Khan, which lasted from 1271 to 1368 AD.

Ming Dynasty - The Chinese dynasty that followed the Yuan Dynasty, ruling from 1368 to 1644 AD and known for its economic prosperity and cultural achievements.

Pax Mongolica - A period of peace and stability that occurred in Eurasia during the Mongol Empire, allowing for increased trade and cultural exchange.

Silk Roads - A network of trade routes connecting China to the Mediterranean, known for the exchange of goods, ideas, and religions.

Sand Roads - A network of trade routes in Africa that crossed the Sahara desert and facilitated the exchange of goods and ideas between the Mediterranean and sub-Saharan Africa.

Sea Roads - Maritime trade routes that connected the East and West, allowing for the exchange of goods, ideas, and religions.

Confucianism - A philosophy and ethical system originating in ancient China that emphasizes the importance of morality, family values, and social order.

Samurai - A warrior class in feudal Japan that served the nobility and followed a strict code of honor known as Bushido.

Shogun - The military ruler of Japan during the feudal period, who held real power while the emperor was a figurehead.

Ottoman Turks - A Muslim empire that emerged in Anatolia in the 14th century and lasted until the early 20th century, known for its military conquests and cultural achievements.

Diaspora Communities - Groups of people who have been dispersed from their original homeland and settled in different parts of the world.

Mansa Musa - The 14th-century emperor of the Mali Empire, known for his wealth and his pilgrimage to Mecca.

Kingdom of Ghana - A medieval West African kingdom that flourished from the 6th to the 13th century, known for its gold and salt trade.

Mali Empire - A medieval West African empire that flourished from the 13th to the 16th century, known for its wealth, scholarship, and Islamic culture.

Songhai Empire - A West African empire that existed from the 15th to the 16th century, known for its military conquests and trading network.

Great Zimbabwe - A medieval African city that flourished from the 11th to the 15th century, known for its impressive stone structures and its role in trade.

Ibn Batuta - A 14th-century Moroccan scholar and traveler who documented his journeys throughout the Islamic world and beyond.

Marco Polo - A Venetian merchant and traveler who wrote a famous account of his travels to China and the Mongol Empire in the 13th century.

Swahili City States - A series of city-states along the East African coast that flourished from the 9th to the 16th century, known for their trade with the Indian Ocean world.

Daimyo: A powerful Japanese feudal lord who controlled a large portion of land and vassals.

Feudalism: A political and social system prevalent in medieval Europe and Japan, where lords granted land to vassals in exchange for loyalty and military service.

Indulgences: In Catholicism, the forgiveness of sins granted by the Church in exchange for a donation or act of piety.

Crusades: A series of religious wars fought between Christians and Muslims in the medieval period over control of the Holy Land.

Hanseatic League: A confederation of merchant guilds in medieval Europe that dominated trade in the Baltic and North Sea regions.

Hinduism: A major religion originating in India that encompasses diverse beliefs, practices, and traditions, including the concepts of karma, dharma, and reincarnation.

Renaissance: A period of cultural and artistic rebirth in Europe from the 14th to 17th centuries, characterized by a renewed interest in classical learning and humanism.

Sikhism: A monotheistic religion founded in the 15th century in the Punjab region of India, combining elements of Hinduism and Islam.

Reformation: A religious movement in Europe in the 16th century, led by Martin Luther, that resulted in the formation of Protestantism and the splintering of the Christian church.

Taj Mahal: A mausoleum built in the 17th century in Agra, India, by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal.

Compass: An instrument used for navigation that shows the direction of magnetic north and helped sailors explore and map the world.

Astrolabe: An instrument used for navigation and to determine the altitude of celestial bodies, invented by ancient Greeks and improved by Muslims.

Caravel: A small, fast sailing ship developed in the 15th century by the Portuguese that enabled long-distance travel and exploration.

Cash Crops: Agricultural products grown for sale rather than for personal consumption, often associated with the Atlantic slave trade and colonialism.

Casta System: A racial classification system used in colonial Latin America, based on ancestry and skin color, with privileges and restrictions associated with each category.

Ming Dynasty: A Chinese dynasty that ruled from 1368 to 1644 and oversaw major cultural and economic achievements, such as the construction of the Great Wall of China and the voyages of Zheng He.

Columbian Exchange: The global transfer of goods, ideas, and diseases between the Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa) and the New World (the Americas) after Columbus's arrival in the Caribbean in 1492.

Christopher Columbus: An Italian explorer who made four voyages across the Atlantic, opening the way for the widespread European exploration and colonization of the Americas.

Conquistadors: Spanish conquerors who colonized and exploited the Americas, such as Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro.

Hernan Cortes: A Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that conquered the Aztec Empire in Mexico in 1521.

Prince Henry the Navigator: A Portuguese prince who sponsored voyages of exploration and helped establish Portugal's colonial empire in the 15th century.

Vasco Da Gama: A Portuguese explorer who led the first European voyage to India by rounding the southern tip of Africa in 1498.

Encomienda: A Spanish colonial system in which colonizers were granted land and Native American labor in exchange for converting them to Christianity and protecting them.

Peninsulares: Spanish colonizers who were born in Spain and held high positions of power in the colonies.

Creoles: Spanish colonizers who were born in the colonies but had Spanish ancestry and often faced discrimination from Peninsulares.

Mestizos: People of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry in colonial Latin America.

Ferdinand Magellan: A Portuguese explorer who led the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519-1522.

Joint-Stock Companies: Business organizations that enabled investors to pool their capital and share the profits and risks of overseas trade and colonization.

Indentured Servitude: A labor system in which individuals agreed to work for a set number of years in exchange for passage to the New World or other benefits.

Maroon Communities: Communities of escaped slaves who formed their own societies and fought against slavery and colonialism.

Bartolome de las Casas: A Spanish priest and historian who criticized the treatment of Native Americans by Spanish colonizers and advocated for their rights.

Middle Passage - The transatlantic voyage that brought enslaved Africans to the Americas; important in the history of the slave trade and European colonialism.

Moctezuma - Aztec emperor who ruled at the time of the Spanish conquest of Mexico, led by Hernan Cortes in 1519-1521.

Atahualpa - Last Incan emperor of Peru, who was captured by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in 1532 and executed the following year.

Francisco Pizarro - Spanish conquistador who conquered the Incan Empire in Peru in the 16th century and established Spanish control over much of South America.

Gold, Glory, God - The three main motivations for European exploration and colonization of the New World during the Age of Exploration; refers to the desire for wealth, fame, and spreading Christianity.

Mercantilism - Economic system in which the government controls the economy in order to increase national wealth and power, usually through a combination of exports and protectionism.

Triangular Trade - Trade system between Europe, Africa, and the Americas that involved the exchange of goods, including slaves, and played a significant role in the development of the global economy.

Protestants - Christians who broke away from the Catholic Church during the Reformation, which began in the 16th century; includes various denominations such as Lutherans, Calvinists, and Anglicans.

Martin Luther - German theologian who began the Protestant Reformation with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, which criticized the Catholic Church's practices such as indulgences.

Treaty of Tordesillas - Agreement signed between Spain and Portugal in 1494 that divided the newly discovered lands of the New World between them, with Spain receiving the majority of the territory.

Jesuits - Members of the Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order founded in the 16th century that played a significant role in the spread of Catholicism and the Counter-Reformation.

Gunpowder Empires - Refers to the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires, which all emerged in the Islamic world in the 16th and 17th centuries and relied heavily on firearms and gunpowder technology.

Akbar - Mughal Emperor of India from 1556-1605, known for his religious tolerance and cultural achievements, including the construction of the Taj Mahal.

Mughal Empire - Muslim empire that ruled much of India from the early 16th to the mid-19th century, known for its cultural achievements and contributions to Indian society.

Safavid Empire - Iranian empire that ruled from the 16th to the 18th century and was known for its promotion of Shia Islam and its artistic and cultural achievements.

Abbas - Safavid Shah of Iran from 1588-1629 who is known for his military and administrative reforms and his patronage of the arts.

Ottoman Empire - Muslim empire that ruled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa from the late 13th century to the early 20th century, known for its military prowess and cultural achievements.

Suleyman the Magnificent - Ottoman Sultan who ruled from 1520-1566 and oversaw a period of great expansion and cultural achievement in the Ottoman Empire.

Sufis - Islamic mystics who seek a direct and personal experience of God through prayer, meditation, and other spiritual practices.

Janissaries - Elite infantry units of the Ottoman Empire, composed of Christian slaves who were converted to Islam and trained as soldiers.