AP EURO Unit 3 Review (Heimler's History)

Unit 3: Absolutism and Constitutionalism in AP European History

Introduction to the Unit

This extensive unit delves into the complex emergence of new forms of governance in Europe, specifically absolutism and constitutionalism, that characterized political structures during the early modern period. Key questions explored include: Which states evolved towards absolutism, consolidating power in the hands of a single monarch? Which states shifted towards constitutionalism, thereby limiting monarchical power through legal frameworks and representative legislative bodies? This transformation was heavily influenced by multiple intricacies, including the centralization of political power, the fragmentation catalyzed by the Protestant Reformation, and the widespread conflicts arising from the wars of religion, which destabilized pre-existing power structures, necessitating the development of new governance forms. Understanding these nuances is crucial for comprehending the trajectory of European political history during this period.

Absolutism

Definition

Absolutism is defined as a comprehensive political system where monarchs consolidate all state power under their direct control to effectively govern and advance national interests and stability. This marked a significant departure from prior models of governance, where authority was transferred and practiced more diffusely among various institutions, such as the church, the nobility, and local governance structures. The key feature of absolutism is the monarch’s claim to divine right, meaning the monarch derives authority directly from God, rendering other forms of authority, including popular consent, virtually irrelevant.

Historical Context

Before the rise of absolutism in Europe, power dynamics were characterized by considerable decentralization, where monarchs frequently shared authority with nobles and ecclesiastical institutions. This system began to transform during the late Renaissance and Reformation, which emphasized ideologies of individualism, central authority, and competition among states. This era saw significant revolutions in thought and governance, allowing ambitious rulers to assert claims of absolute power. Motivated by the successes and strategies of peer monarchs, rulers began implementing systems designed to consolidate political power and enhance stability in their realms.

Factors Leading to the Rise of Absolutism

1. Weakened Church Influence: The Protestant Reformation significantly contributed to a surge in acceptance of Protestant ideas, directly undermining the authority of the Catholic Church, which had traditionally wielded great influence over European monarchies. As religious plurality emerged, monarchs seized this opportunity to assert dominance, often aligning themselves with Protestant groups to diminish papal power and increase their control over religious governance, including church appointments and doctrines.

2. Mercantilist Expansion: The rise of a burgeoning middle merchant class looking to expand trade led to greater demands for stability and protection. Absolute monarchs increasingly recognized the alliance with this class as beneficial, yielding promises of favorable economic conditions and security in return for political loyalty. This intertwined relationship created the conditions for a flourishing state economy, capable of funding both military and civil expansion endeavors.

3. Shift in Power Dynamics: The transition of power away from the traditional landed nobility towards emerging merchant and bourgeois classes provided substantial support for the adoption of absolutist principles. New alliances formed, allowing kings to strategically reduce the influence of the aristocracy, who had historically resisted monarchical overreach.

Louis XIV of France

Embodiment of Absolutism

Louis XIV, often regarded as the epitome of absolutism, centralized power to an unprecedented degree within the French monarchy. His famous declaration, "L'état, c'est moi" (I am the state), exemplifies the principle that the monarch is the embodiment of the state's authority, thereby legitimizing all actions and decrees taken in the name of governance.

The Fronde

The Fronde was a series of civil wars in France between 1648–1653 that occurred during Louis XIV's formative years, primarily against Cardinal Mazarin's regency. These uprisings, fueled by both noble discontent and popular frustration, profoundly impacted Louis’s approach to governance. The Fronde exemplified the vulnerabilities associated with governance lacking robust leadership, underscoring the necessity of a strong central authority. The experiences of instability during his youth greatly influenced Louis’s resolve to establish a uniform and centralized power framework upon his ascendancy to the throne.

Mechanisms of Power Consolidation

• Intendant System: Louis XIV implemented a comprehensive bureaucratic structure known as the Intendant System, wherein royal agents, known as intendants, were tasked with executing royal policies in the provinces. This significantly marginalized the power previously held by local governors and the nobility, ensuring a direct line of control from the monarch to his subjects.

• Construction of the Palace of Versailles: The creation of the opulent Palace of Versailles served multifaceted purposes—it became a symbol of royal power and a means of consolidating loyalty among the nobility. By relocating the nobility to Versailles, Louis XIV ensured their loyalty while keeping them under close surveillance. The elaborate court life not only distracted nobles from political plotting but also reinforced the idea of the monarch as central to governance and culture in France.

• Revocation of the Edict of Nantes: The revocation in 1685 eliminated religious tolerance previously granted to Huguenots, further consolidating Louis's control over church and state. This move aimed to promote religious uniformity as a pillar of state strength, though it resulted in the emigration of many skilled workers, ultimately undermining the economy of France.

Military Expansion and Economic Policies

Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis XIV’s finance minister, orchestrated rigorous mercantilist policies aimed at bolstering France’s economic power while financially underpinning military pursuits. Though these policies initially appeared successful, the exigencies of continuous warfare led to financial strains, posing questions about the sustainability of Louis's vision for an expanded French state.

Peter the Great of Russia

Context of Rule

Peter I, known as Peter the Great, ascended to the Russian throne in 1682, inheriting a nation largely characterized by political and social structures reflective of medieval Europe. Peter's reign marked a pivotal moment in Russian history as he initiated sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing Russia to compete effectively with West European powers, implementing considerable changes across various sectors—political, cultural, and military.

Reforms Introduced by Peter

• Political Reforms: To centralize authority and modernize governance, Peter mandated that nobles serve in either military or civil service. This directive paired with the establishment of the Table of Ranks facilitated the emergence of a more meritocratic governance structure, diminishing the power of hereditary aristocrats.

• Religious Reforms: Peter restructured the Russian Orthodox Church by abolishing the historic position of patriarch, replacing it with the Holy Synod—a collective governing body that reinforced state control over religious matters. This significant reorganization aimed to subordinate religious authority to the interests of the state.

• Cultural Reforms: A champion of westernization, Peter enforced reforms that imposed Western dress codes and habits among the Russian elites, simultaneously abolishing traditional customs—such as beards—via a beard tax for resistors, reflecting a broader cultural shift towards modernity and away from mediocrity.

Financial Burdens

To finance his ambitious modernization initiatives, Peter significantly increased taxes—tripling the financial obligations on his subjects—prompting significant resistance from both nobles and peasants. This fundamental tension illuminated the enduring struggle between the modernization of the Russian state and the deeply ingrained opposition from traditional social structures.

England and Constitutionalism

Contrast with Absolutist States

In contrast to countries transitioning toward absolutism, England distinctively moved toward constitutionalism, characterized by the notion that the authority of the monarch is confined and regulated by laws as well as a shared governance framework with parliamentary institutions, which serve as checks against monarchical overreach.

Role of Parliament

The English Parliament emerged as a pivotal institution in mediating power between the monarchy and the public. Over time, it evolved from a traditional legislative body into a more cooperative governing body, playing an increasingly significant role in national governance decisions and reflecting the rising demands for a balance of power based on representation and consent.

English Civil War (1642-1651)

The English Civil War erupted primarily from conflicts concerning the Doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings—wherein monarchy claimed divine sanction to govern. The transition from Queen Elizabeth I to King James I further ignited power struggles, culminating in a conflict between royalists and parliamentarians. This war encapsulated deep-seated disputes regarding governance, authority, and the growing calls for political reform, ultimately leading to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the diminished power of the crown in favor of parliamentary sovereignty.