basic info

• understand > know (test abstract thinking

paper one

• bio

  • behaviour (tech., localisation & brain function, neuroplasticity, neurotransmission)

  • hormones (pheromones, hormones)

  • genetics (evolution, genetics)

• cognitive

  • processes (models/theories & memory, schema theory)

  • reliability of processes (reconstructive memory, decision making, cognitive bias)

  • emotion & cognition

• sociocultural

  • individual & group (stereotypes, social identity theory, social cognitive theory)

  • culture (cultural dimensions)

  • cultural influences (enculturation, acculturation)

• SAQ’s — Section A

  • identify, outline, comments, describe, suggest, explain (words in question)

• essays — Section B

  • to what extent, contrast, evaluate, discuss (words in question)

  • abstract thinking & understanding

paper 2

topic options

• human relationships

  • personal (formation, communication, change & end)

  • group dynamics (cooperation & competition, prejudice, conflict)

  • social responsibility (bystanderism, pro social behaviour)

• abnormal

  • diagnosis factors (classifying, clinical bias, validity)

  • etiology (explaining, prevalence)

  • treatment (bio, psychological, culture, effectiveness)

sars

• 3 in paper 1 (20 mins each; 225-350 words)

• describe research ‘explicitly linked to the question’

• outline/framework

  • intro

  • description

  • explanation

  • conclusion

• explain relationships & how a study is relevant

essay

• counterarguments (critical thinking)

• open-ended questions

• outline/framework

  • intro (identify specific relationships)

  • point/body (select detail-relevant descriptions; explain a relationship and link it to the question)

  • counterpoint (reinforce depth of knowledge)

  • conclusion (restate core argument)

• only include relevant, detailed info

BIO

fMRI — measures activity when performing a task or cognitive process

• develops understanding of origins of behaviours by showing chemical messengers

cognitive reappraisal — reassessing an emotion stimulus to change the emotional impact

localisation

• particular parts of the brain perform particular functions

• amygdala

  • part of the limbic system; located in the temporal lobe

  • emotional centre

  • perceives threatening or dangerous things & activates stress response (evolutionary adaption)

  • SM (feinstein et al) — results: amygdala is responsible for fear

neuroplasticity

• the brain’s ability to change as a result of experience

• correlation between poverty & brain development (in hippocampus)

  • neural networks — neurons connect as we learn new things

  • lack of stimulation & stressful life events

• chronic stress effects on hippocampus

  • prolonged release of cortisol

• luby et al — results: experiences can shape development if brain

neurotransmitters

• chemical messengers that send messages along neural pathways

• serotonin (too much for a long time = antisocial behaviour - aggression and violence)(also effects pfc)

• agonist — reduces effects; antagonist — increases effect

• damage to pfc associated with violence & aggression (decreased activity in amygdala)

• passamonti et al — serotonin dysfunction linked with antisocial behaviour

hormones

• chemical messengers released by glands in endocrine system and transported via blood

• testosterone

  • linked with aggression (relationship between aggression & social dominance/status)

  • could increase activity in amygdala (increased aggression)

• Radke at al — testosterone may increase amygdala —> activated ‘fight response’

pheromones

• chemical messengers that are secreted by one person and detected by another

• olfactory system & vomeronasal organ

  • no evidence of organ in humans (may not need it to detect)

• andostadienone

  • associated w attraction; secreted through male sweat

genes & behaviour

• sequences of DNA found in chromosomes in cells

• MAOA gene — correlation with aggressive behaviour; MAOA-A affects neurotransmission; MAOA-L may increase aggression

• Caspi et al — MAOA-L more likely antisocial (child abuse setting)

evolution & behaviour

• behaviour exists because it helped to procreate & survive

• fear — essential to survival

• memory consideration

COGNITIVE

model of memory

• multi-store model

  • explains memory formation through stores

  • atkinson & shiffrin

  • separate stores: sensory, short-term, long-term

  • control processes: transfers memory

  • serial position effect: ppl remember primary & recency items

  • HM — confirms bio component is responsible for memory consolidation

• working memory model

  • info more conscious of @ one time (proposes how short-term processes occur)

  • working memory directed by central executive because it controls slave systems

    • phonological loop (verbal) & visuospatial sketch pad (visual & spatial)

  • episodic buffer (temporary store)

• schema theory

  • how info is organised & how this can affect thinking & behaviour

  • cognitive schema — cluster of knowledge/memory stored in the mind (“cognitive framework”)

    • system for categorising & organising info & memory

  • can explain formation of stereotypes (& confirmation bias)

  • Bransford & Johnson — new info can be related to existing knowledge with schema

reconstructive memory

• memory can be distorted

  • false info after an event

    • misinfo effect (reconstruct memories)

  • memory reliable?

• Lotus & Palmer — leading questions & memory reliability for misinfo effect

confirmation bias

• focus on info that is consistent with existing beliefs

  • ‘safe cognitive energy’ — less mental effect & confortable

  • stereotypes

• hearistics — cognitive bias when making decisions

cortisol & memory consolidation

• emotion could increase memory reliability (cortisol & fear)

• neural networks in hippocampus

• Luby et al — stress can affect memory

SOCIOCULTURAL

social identity theory

• conflict between groups (in-groups & out-groups)

• Tajfel & Turner

• RCT — conflicts caused by a competition for resources; SIT — how conflict can occur without competition for resources

• belonging & identifying with a social group can affect out-group treatment

  • social categorisation —> comparisons

  • self-esteem hypothesis — biased comparisons favouring in0group

  • out-group homogeneity effect — out-group more similar to one another than in-group

  • minimal group paradigm — in-group bias, even when randomised

social cognitive theory

• observational learning (attention, retention, motor reproduction, reinforcement)

• triadic reciprocal determinism

• culture of honour (testosterone)

stereotypes

• generalisation about a group of ppl

• out-group homogeneity & SIT (categorising & comparing between in- and out-groups)

• schema theory

• confirmation bias

cultural influences on behaviour & cognition

• culture of honour

• cultural groups & cultural norms

• bio

  • culture & aggression (testosterone)

• cognitive

  • cultural values & norms affect thinking & actions

• Cohen et al — south - increased testosterone than the north

cultural dimensions

• a group of related cultural values

• individualism & collectivism

  • individualism - decreased conformity; own opinion > group

  • collectivism - increased conformity; own opinion < group

• origins of cultural values

  • enculturation & economics (agriculture (collective) v low food accumulation (individual))

• Barry et al — child training, parents raise kids with cultural values depend on economy (increased conformity)

enculturation

• process of acquiring cultural norms & values of ones home culture

• delayed gratification

  • different parenting styles

• Berry — temne (collective) vs inuit (individual)

• Barry et al

acculturation

• process of adapting & changing as a result of living in a new culture

• assimilation — loses sense of belonging to heritage culture

• integration — adapts b adopting cultural values with strong connection to hertitage culture

• separation — rejects new culture

• marginalisation — loses sense of belonging to heritage culture and doesn’t adapt

• acculturative stress

• Torres et al — latinos; discrimination & acculturative stress

ABNORMAL — PTSD

normality vs abnormality

• abnormality — behaviour is inconsistent with social norms; behaviour causes suffering

• clinical bias can distort the judgement process

• Rosenhan — proved distinguishing (ab)normal is difficult

classification systems

• classification system — detailed descriptions of a range of psychological disorders & symptoms

• DSM (US) & ICD (international)

  • PTSD — DSM symptoms related to arousal, avoidance, re-experiencing; ICD is more narrow

• subjectivity during diagnosis process yet can help reduce clinical bias

clinical bias in diagnosis

• affect validity & reliability of diagnoisis

• clinical bias — cognitive bias that can affect a diagnosis made by a clinician

  • confirmation bias — focus on & remember info consistent to existing beliefs

• labelling theory — how a given label can affect behaviour

• Rosenhan

validity & reliability of diagnosis

• validity — how accurate the original diagnosis is

• reliability — the extent to which more than one clinician agrees with the original diagnosis

• classification systems

• culture differences (difference in reporting symptoms)

etiologies

• bio

  • abnormalities in the brain

    • hippocampus

      • low function & volume

      • could explain loss of memory symptoms

    • amygdala

      • decreased volume but hyper-activity

      • increased arousal & anxiety

    • vmpfc

      • decreased volume & hypo-activity

      • fear conditioning & fear extinction

  • Gilbertson et al — hippocampal volume is a pre-existing risk factor for PTSD symptoms

• cognitive

  • cognitive appraisal

    • how someone thinks about a (traumatic) experiences

    • negative appraisals can explain avoidance (& depression) with PTSD

• bio and cognitive

  • vmpfc associated with cognitive reappraisal

  • Urry et al — negative correlation beween vmpfc & amygdala

prevalence rates

• socioeconomic status & appraisals

  • lower socioeconomic status make risk for ptsd

• Luby et al — parenting styles may explain why poverty is linked with brain development

treatments

• bio

  • drug therapy

    • SSRIs — increase serotonin (in the pfc) to decrease symptoms of ptsd

• cognitive

  • cognitive behavioural therapy

    • exposure therapy (fear extinction)

    • virtual reality exposure therapy (address negative reappraisals)

    • imagination therapy (cognitive reconstructing)

  • Felmingham et al — exposure therapy & cognitive reconstructing may have effect on the amygdala

• effectiveness of treatment

  • clinical trial — test effectiveness of a treatment (psych & bio)

  • clinical drug trials = true experiments

    • compare effects of a drug with a control group

culture & treatment

• drug therapy popular in western cultures

• cultural competency — understanding cultural backgrounds when treating

• different cultures have different attitudes towards origins of psych disorders

• stigma (could affect treatment process)

key studies

• bio

  • Gilbertson

  • Bechara/Iowa Gambling

  • Rosenswig & Bennet

  • Luby

  • Capsi

  • Passamonti

  • Radke

  • Cohen

  • Johnston

• cognitive

  • Felmingham

  • MacNamara

  • Urry

  • Robbins

  • Baddeley & Hitch

  • Buchanan & Lovallo

  • Peterson & Peterson

  • Atkinson & Shiffrin

  • Batson

  • Loftus & Palmer

  • Bechara/Iowa Gambling

  • Bransford & Johnson

  • Passamonti

  • Desbordes

  • Radke

• sociocultural

  • Garrison

  • Rosenswig & Bennet

  • Tajfel & Turner

  • Sherif Robers Cave

  • Luby

  • Capsi

  • Cohen

  • Barry

  • Asch

  • Berry

  • Torres

  • Danley & Latane

  • Hwang

  • Buss

  • Rosenhan

• ptsd

  • Felmingham

  • MacNamara

  • Gilbertson

  • Garrison

  • Loftus & Palmer