Chapter 12: Social Psychology

Introduction to Social Psychology

• Social psychology studies how people interact with one another and how situations influence behavior.

• Social psychologists explore interpersonal and group relationships to understand human behavior.

Intrapersonal vs. Interpersonal Topics

• Intrapersonal Topics: Focus on individual aspects, like emotions, attitudes, and self-cognition (how we think about ourselves).

• Interpersonal Topics: Concern interactions between people, like helping behaviors, aggression, attraction, and group dynamics.

Situational vs. Dispositional Influences on Behavior

• Behavior is affected by:

  • Situational factors: Cultural influences, social roles, presence of bystanders.

  • Dispositional factors: Internal traits like personality and temperament.

• Situationism: Behavior is mainly determined by environment.

• Dispositionism: Behavior is determined by internal factors.

• Modern psychology considers both influences.

Fundamental Attribution Error

• This error happens when people overemphasize internal factors for others' behaviors, ignoring situational causes.

• Example: If Jamie yells at Morgan after work, we might think Jamie is angry (internal trait) instead of considering Jamie might be upset from losing a job (situational).[1]

• Quizmaster Study: Showed that participants rated questioners as smarter because they didn't recognize how situation (being the one asking questions) affected performance.

Halo Effect

• The halo effect is when we assume that if someone has a good trait (like being attractive), they also have other good traits (like being kind).

Cultural Differences in the Fundamental Attribution Error

• Individualistic Cultures: Like the US and UK, focus on personal traits when explaining behavior.

• Collectivistic Cultures: Like some Asian cultures, consider group dynamics and context more, leading to fewer errors in attribution.

Actor-Observer Bias

• This bias occurs when we attribute others' behaviors to their character (internal) but explain our own behavior based on situations (external).

• Example: If Jamie yells at someone, observers think Jamie is mean, while Jamie might say, "I'm just stressed."

Self-Serving Bias

• This bias is about how we interpret our successes and failures to feel good about ourselves.

• Success: We say it's because of our skills (internal).

• Failure: We blame outside factors (external).

Just-World Hypothesis

• The belief that everyone gets what they deserve in life, promoting dispositional explanations for behavior.

• This can lead to victim blaming, where we think people in unfortunate situations are to blame for their situation rather than considering external factors (poverty, educational opportunities).

• For instance, someone might blame a poor person for being lazy rather than recognizing social and economic barriers that contribute to their situation.

Conclusion

• Overall, social psychology reveals the complexity of human behavior, showing how both internal and situational factors influence actions and perceptions.

Introduction to Social Psychology

Social psychology is all about how people influence each other's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. It's important because it helps us understand how our environment and social context affect how we act.

Situational Influences on Behavior

Our behavior can change based on the situation we're in. This can be influenced by things like the culture we're part of or the social expectations we face.

Social Roles

• What Are Social Roles?

  • Social roles are patterns of behavior that we are expected to display in certain situations.

• Examples of Social Roles:

  • You could be a student in a classroom, a friend at a party, or a sibling at home.

  • In a college classroom, most students are expected to take notes and listen attentively, reflecting the social role of a "student."

• Behavior Changes by Role:

  • You might act silly and relaxed at a family function but be more serious and professional at a job. Your behaviors can vary depending on the social setting.

Social Norms

• What Are Social Norms?

  • Social norms are the rules or expectations about how we should behave in a group.

• Influence of Social Norms:

  • Norms can shape everything from what we wear to what we talk about.

• Examples:

  • Colleges have specific behavior expectations for students, while workplaces have different norms for employees.

Scripts

• What Are Scripts?

  • Scripts are like guidelines for expected behavior in certain situations.

• Behavior Examples:

  • At a restaurant in the U.S., you might make eye contact with the server to get their attention, while in Brazil, whistle or say “psst” is more common. This shows how culture can change expectations in social settings.

Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment

• Overview:

  • This famous study showed how social roles can drastically affect people's behavior. College students were randomly assigned to be guards or prisoners in a mock prison.

• Results:

  • The guards became abusive, while prisoners showed signs of stress and fear. The situation became so intense that the experiment had to be stopped after six days.

• Critiques:

  • Many people criticize the study for how it was set up, claiming that it may not accurately represent behavior in real-life situations.

• Real-World Connection:

  • The experiment's results have been compared to real-life situations like the abuse of prisoners at Abu Ghraib, highlighting how social contexts can lead to harmful behaviors.

The Influence of Situations on Our Attitudes and Beliefs

• Attitude Defined: An attitude is how we feel about a person, idea, or object.

• Types of Attitudes: They can be positive or negative.

  • For instance, if you think recycling is good, your positive attitude may make you feel happy about recycling and lead you to recycle often.

• Components of Attitudes:

  • Affective Component: These are your feelings about the topic.

  • Behavioral Component: This is how your attitude affects your actions.

  • Cognitive Component: This includes your beliefs and knowledge about the subject.

Cognitive Dissonance

• What is Cognitive Dissonance? It's the uncomfortable feeling we get when our thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors don’t match up.

• Example: If you know smoking is bad for you (belief) but you keep smoking (behavior), you might feel bad about yourself (dissonance).

• Why It Happens: When our positive self-image is threatened by our behavior, we feel psychological discomfort.

• How We Deal with Dissonance:

  • Change Behavior: For example, quit smoking.

  • Change Belief: Tell yourself that smoking isn't that harmful.

  • Add a New Belief: Justify it by saying smoking keeps you from gaining weight.

Real-World Example of Cognitive Dissonance

• Joaquin’s Military Experience: Joaquin enlists in the military and goes through tough training.

  • His Dilemma: If he keeps thinking about how hard his experience is, he will feel miserable. Instead, he can think about how strong he is becoming and how important his service is.

The Effect of Initiation

• Justification of Effort: When we go through tough experiences to achieve something, we tend to value it more.

• Example Study: In one study, students who had a hard initiation to join a group found it more enjoyable than those who had an easy initiation, showing that effort can lead to a stronger appreciation of the group.

Persuasion

• What is Persuasion? Persuasion is about changing someone’s attitude or beliefs through communication.

• Yale Attitude Change Approach:

  • Found that the effectiveness of a persuasive message depends on the speaker's credibility, the quality of the message, and the audience’s characteristics.

Routes to Persuasion

• Elaboration Likelihood Model: There are two main ways people can be persuaded:

  • Central Route: Focuses on logical arguments and evidence. Lasting changes occur here.

  • For Ex: Someone might buy a computer after hearing about its features.

  • Peripheral Route: Relies on superficial cues, like attractiveness or celebrity endorsements, leading to temporary changes.

  • Ex: A celebrity wearing a brand can persuade someone to buy that brand.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

• Definition: This strategy involves getting someone to agree to a small request before making a bigger request.

• Example: If a salesperson can convince you to get an insurance plan for your smartphone, you might later agree to buy an extended warranty when they suggest it.

Conformity

• What is Conformity?

  • Conformity is when people change their behavior to fit in with the group, even if they don’t really agree.

• Solomon Asch's Experiment:

  • Conducted in the 1950s to study how group pressure affects individual judgment.

  • Participants had to match a line segment with the correct one among others shown (a, b, or c) but were influenced by confederates (who were in on the experiment).

  • About 76% of people conformed at least once by giving the wrong answer when pressured by the group.

Factors Influencing Conformity

• Group Size:

  • The more people in the majority, the more likely someone will conform—up to about seven people.

• Dissenters Matter:

  • If there is even one person disagreeing with the group, conformity drops significantly.

• Public vs. Private Responses:

  • People tend to conform more when they answer questions publicly rather than privately.

Types of Influence

• Normative Social Influence:

  • This is when people conform to feel accepted or to fit in, even if they know the answer is wrong.

• Informational Social Influence:

  • This happens when people conform because they believe the group might have better information, especially in unclear situations.

Obedience

• Definition:

  • Obedience is when people change their behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure.

• Milgram’s Experiment:

  • Conducted by Stanley Milgram in the 1960s to see how far people would go in obeying instructions.

  • Participants were told to administer shocks to learners (who were actually confederates) when they got answers wrong.

  • It was shocking that 65% of participants went all the way to the highest shock level, even when learners showed signs of distress.

Factors That Affect Obedience

• Authority Presence:

  • If the authority figure is distant, fewer people obey.

• Proximity:

  • When the learner is in the same room as the teacher, obedience decreases.

Groupthink

• Definition:

  • Groupthink is when people in a group go along with a consensus and just try to keep the peace, leading to poor decisions.

• Symptoms:

  • Believing the group can't be wrong, ignoring different opinions, or self-censorship.

Real-World Example of Groupthink

• Iraq War:

  • Decisions made by the U.S. administration before the 2003 invasion are often cited as an example of groupthink, where the group ignored dissent and relied on a consensus that later turned out to be incorrect.

Group Polarization

• What is Group Polarization?

  • It’s the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members.

• Examples:

  • Political gatherings where a group might become more passionate about a viewpoint after discussing it.

Social Loafing

• Definition:

  • Social loafing occurs when individuals put in less effort in a group task than they would if they were working alone, thinking others will pick up the slack.

• Situations Where It Happens:

  • More likely in larger groups and less likely if individual work is evaluated.

Deindividuation

• Definition:

  • Deindividuation happens when people in a group feel anonymous and less accountable, which can lead to impulsive or aggressive behavior.

Types of Social Influence

Human Conflict and Its Roots

• Human conflict can lead to serious issues like crime, war, and even mass murder (genocide).

• Prejudice and discrimination are often to blame for human conflict, making people hate others for no good reason.

• This hate can lead to harmful actions against others.

Understanding Prejudice and Discrimination

• People are diverse, with similarities and differences, and these social groups help shape our identities.

What is Prejudice?

• Definition: Prejudice is a negative attitude towards someone based on their membership in a social group, like race, gender, or nationality.

• Commonly seen against those from unfamiliar cultures.

Reducing Prejudice

• Education and getting to know people from different backgrounds can help lower prejudice.

• Imagining positive interactions with others can change your attitudes towards them for the better.

Stereotypes

• Definition: A stereotype is a specific belief about a group that may not be true for all individuals in that group.

• Stereotypes can lead to overgeneralizations, like believing all older adults are slow or that Black athletes are more athletic but less intelligent.

• These stereotypes can affect how groups are treated and how individuals see themselves.

Discrimination

• Definition: Discrimination is the action of treating someone poorly because of their group membership.

• Example: Choosing not to include older adults in social activities because of negative stereotypes.

Example of Gender Discrimination

• Mary Whiton Calkins was a strong psychologist, yet she was denied her PhD from Harvard simply because she was a woman, despite meeting all the requirements.

Reflection

• Have you ever faced discrimination? How did it make you feel?

• Understanding these terms can help us recognize and combat prejudice and discrimination in our lives.

Connecting Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Human Conflict and Its Roots

• Human conflict can lead to serious issues like crime, war, and even genocide.

• Prejudice and discrimination are major causes of conflict, making people hate others for no good reason.

• This hate can result in harmful actions against others.

Understanding Prejudice and Discrimination

• People are diverse, and our social groups help shape our identities.

What is Prejudice?

• Definition: Prejudice is a negative attitude toward someone based on their social group, such as race, gender, or nationality.

• Commonly seen against those from unfamiliar cultures.

Reducing Prejudice

• Education and interacting with different groups can help lower prejudice.

• Imagining positive experiences with others can change our attitudes.

Stereotypes

• Definition: A stereotype is a belief about a group that may not apply to everyone in that group.

• Can lead to overgeneralizations, like thinking all older adults are slow or that Black athletes are strong but not smart.

• Stereotypes affect how groups are treated and how individuals view themselves.

Discrimination

• Definition: Discrimination is treating someone badly because of their group membership.

• Example: Not including older adults in social events because of negative stereotypes.

Example of Gender Discrimination

• Mary Whiton Calkins was a skilled psychologist but was denied her PhD from Harvard just because she was a woman.

Human Conflict and Its Roots

• Conflict among humans can lead to serious issues like crime and war, even genocide.

• Prejudice (unfair negative attitudes) and discrimination (acting on those attitudes) often drive these conflicts.

• Hate from prejudice can lead to harmful actions.

Understanding Prejudice and Discrimination

• People come from various backgrounds, and our social groups shape our identities.

What is Prejudice?

• Definition: A negative attitude towards someone based on their social group (like race or gender).

• Often directed at people from unfamiliar backgrounds.

Reducing Prejudice

• Learning and interacting with diverse groups can help lower prejudicial attitudes.

• Imagining positive interactions can change how we feel about others.

Stereotypes

• Definition: Simplified beliefs about a group that aren’t true for everyone.

• They can lead to over-generalizations, like thinking all older adults are slow.

• Stereotypes impact how groups are treated and how individuals see themselves.

Discrimination

• Definition: Treating someone unfairly because of their group membership.

• Example: Not inviting older adults to social events due to stereotypes.

Gender Discrimination Example

• Mary Whiton Calkins was a talented psychologist denied her PhD from Harvard just because she was a woman.

Bullying

• Bullying is when someone is repeatedly treated badly over time, not just a one-time event.

• It can be physical, verbal, or even psychological.

• Boys often bully physically, while girls may use indirect ways like spreading rumors.

• Bullying involves the bully, victim, and bystanders.

• The bully often has more power over the victim, which can boost their self-esteem.

• Effects on Victims: Victims can suffer from anxiety, depression, and even lower school performance.

Cyberbullying

• With technology, cyberbullying has become common.

• It involves online harassment that can make victims feel powerless.

• About one in three students has faced some form of cyberbullying.

• Studies show LGBTQ youth face higher rates of cyberbullying.

• Girls and boys experience different forms of cyberbullying, with girls often being both victims and aggressors.

Effects of Cyberbullying

• Can cause serious emotional issues, such as frustration, sadness, and lower self-esteem.

• Victims may also have thoughts of suicide.

Bystander Effect

• The bystander effect is when witnesses to a situation do not help, assuming someone else will.

• This was highlighted by the case of Kitty Genovese, where neighbors did not intervene during her attack.

• Diffusion of Responsibility: In a group, people may feel less inclined to act because they think someone else will take charge.

• The more witnesses there are, the less likely any single person will help.

Understanding Social Psychology

• Social psychology studies how we interact with others and how these interactions affect our thoughts and behaviors.

Prosocial Behavior and Altruism

• Prosocial Behavior: This means helping others even when there's no direct benefit for yourself.

• Altruism: This is when people want to help others, even when the cost to themselves is high.

  • Example: During the 9/11 attacks, a man risked his life to help coworkers escape from a burning building.

• Empathy: Understanding how someone else feels can drive people to help.

  • Some argue that altruism is truly selfless, while others believe there are benefits to helping, like feeling good about yourself.

Forming Relationships

• Proximity: We are more likely to become friends with people we see often, like those who live nearby or sit next to us in class.

• Similarity: We tend to form friendships with those who are similar to us in interests and backgrounds.

  • This is known as homophily, the idea that people prefer others who are like themselves.

Reciprocity in Relationships

• Relationships work best when there’s a give-and-take.

• Self-Disclosure: Sharing personal information helps create closer connections.

  • It’s important in intimate relationships but should be mutual.

Attraction Factors

• We usually find physical attractiveness important, but it varies by culture.

  • Features in Women: Large eyes, high cheekbones, and slim bodies.

  • Features in Men: Tall with broad shoulders.

  • People also prefer those who have traits that indicate warmth and social skills for women, and achievement and leadership for men.

• The Matching Hypothesis says we often choose partners who we see as equal or similar to ourselves in attractiveness.

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love

• According to Sternberg, love has three components:

  • Intimacy: Sharing personal thoughts and feelings.

  • Passion: Physical attraction.

  • Commitment: Deciding to stay with someone.

• Types of Love:

  • Consummate Love: All three components are present.

  • Romantic Love: Intimacy + Passion, but no commitment.

  • Companionate Love: Intimacy + Commitment, but no passion.

  • Infatuation: Passion without intimacy or commitment.

Social Exchange Theory

• This theory suggests we keep track of the costs and benefits of being in relationships.

• Healthy relationships tend to have more benefits than costs.

• For example, staying in a romantic relationship typically happens if the advantages, like companionship and intimacy, are greater than any downsides.