Crush the crop: Start with a crop containing lots of sugar
Add Yeast: Add yeast, which metabolizes the sugar, producing carbon dioxide and alcohol (Ethanol)
Concentrate the Alcohol: Concentrate the alcohol through distillation or freezing

Quote: The less water in the alcohol, the better it burns

Environmental Impact

Carbon Cycle: Growing crops removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and burning biofuel releases it back, creating a carbon- neutral cycle

Fossil Fuels: Biofuel is much better than fossil fuels, which carbon is extracted from the ground and released into the atmosphere in a one-way process

Government interest

Favors biofuel because it is a domestic product which is better for:

Fuel independence
National Security
The economy

Biofuel: A Theoretically Great Idea

Biofuel is environmentally neutral regarding greenhouse gas carbon dioxide

Significant improvement over fossil fuels
Extract carbon from the ground into the atmosphere
Disrupts the natural carbon cycle

Government favors biofuel because:

It is a domestic product
Boosts the economy
Improves the balance of payments
Enhances natural security by reducing dependence on foreign countries

Corn as Biofuel

Corn is primary crop used for biofuel
Rich in sugar and the government subsidizes its production for biofuel
Farmers are incentivized to grow corn for biofuel, due to subsidies
Leads to shortages and rising prices of corn as a food source
The amount of corn required to fill a car’s gas tank with biofuel could feed a family for a year

Problem with Corn-Based Biofuel Production

U.S agriculture is highly mechanized
Relying on heavy machinery to burn fossil fuels to plow, plant, spray and harvest corn
Amount of fossil fuel burned to produce biofuel, roughly the same as the energy obtained from the biofuel
Process into unproductive, does not save on imports, promote energy independence, or help with global warming

Biofuel Success in Brazil

Producing biofuel for years using sugar cane
A fast growing tropical grass that makes a lot of sugar
More abundant than needed for sugar production
Does not disrupt the food supply
More manual with people planting, tending, and harvesting sugar cane by hand
Results in a better balance between fossil fuel input and biofuel output
Most cars run on E85, (A blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline)

Deforestation: Grazing

Primarily where forests are cleared and burned to create land for rearing animals and cattle

U.S. principally responsible for this due to its high demands for beef
Makes profit for tropical countries to cut down forests, raise cattle and export beef to the U.S.

Negative impacts of Grazing

Loss of forests: reducing the planet’s ability to absorb carbon dioxide
Burning of lumber: Releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
Methane production: cattle produce methane, a potent greenhouse gas, during digestion
Methane emissions: from cattle burps and farts, which are a significant contributor to atmospheric methane levels
Humanity maintains huge herds of cattle, exceeding any natural carrying capacity
Deforestation for grazing has a double negative effect:reducing carbon absorption and increasing methane emissions

Deforestation: Clear Cuts

Clear cuts in the USA

Deforestation occurs: in the US, primarily in the Pacific Northwest, through clear cutting
Clear cutting: The practice of cutting down all trees in an area for lumber and paper products
Clear cutting creates a checkerboard pattern of clear cuts and forests
Practice is cheaper and quicker than selective logging trees
Significant environmental consequences

Long-Term Concerns

Practice concerns about the future of forests
Widespread issue across corporate america
Long-term environmental impact of such practices

The Rise of MBAs in Corporate Leadership

Transition from field Professionals to MBAs

Corporations are led by individuals who had worked their way up through the ranks
Possess expertise in the company’s specific industry
Logging companies: were headed by former loggers, arborists or sawmill supervisors
Oil companies: led by petroleum geologists and engineers
Many american corporations or CEOs: have MBAs (Masters in Business Administration)
Often lack specific knowledge or experience in the company’s field
Primarily focus on financial aspects such as money, stock prices, pensions plans and shareholder satisfaction

MBA Curriculum and Short-Term Planning

MBA curriculum typically emphasizes short-term planning
Short-term planning is defined as looking one year ahead
Long term planning to five years
10 years is irrelevant due to potential changes in conditions

Reforestation Practices: Tree Farms vs Forests

Corporations implement reforestation practices
Jurisdictions mandate replanting efforts
Efforts often result in tree farms rather than true forests

Tree variety

Diverse, with trees of all sizes , ages, and species

(eg, seedlings to old, dead snags 20+ tree species)

Uniform, with trees of the same species, age, and size planted in straight lines at even spacing

Undergrowth

Rich in shrubs (eg, 50+ species) and herbaceous plants (eg, 200+ species)
Limited or absent
Layer of vegetation beneath the forest canopy
Significant part of a forest’s ecosystem
Influencing soil health, wildlife habitats

Biodiversity

Supports a complex ecosystem of animals and insects
Reduced biodiversity

Analogy

A natural, self-sustaining system
Similar to a cornfield on a grand scale

Planting

Naturally seeded
Seedlings are planted in a crude furrow ripped by a bulldozer with a hook, typically during the cooler, rainer months of the year

Deforestation Extent: A Global Overview

Deforestation in the United States

Northern California: Approximately 20% deforested

Visible clear cuts on dirt roads

Pacific Northwest (South-Central Oregon)

A checkerboard pattern of clear cuts observed on both sides of the Central Valley
Deforestation levels on areas and makes an dense geometric pattern

Washington (Mount Rainier)

Clear boundaries between the national park (no tree cutting)
Surrounding areas with extensive clear cuts are watched
Estimated up to least 50% of deforestation

Historical Context

Over half of the eastern US and the mountain ranges of the west forested
Most of these forests were eliminated
Secondary regrowth and commercial trees plantings have increased tree cover

Colorado Example

Forests cut down to fuel the mining industry
Regrown as lodgepole pines
Pines of similar age now dying simultaneously, lead to widespread tree death

Global Deforestation Patterns

Key colors on Deforestation Maps

Green: Forest in good condition

Yellow-Brown: Degraded forests

Red: Forests that are gone

Europe

Forests are largely gone, triggering the Industrial Revolution due to firewood scarcity and the discovery of coal

Southeast Asia: forests mostly gone

Northern America: Predominantly degraded forests

Representing secondary regrowth and commercial paintings

Tropical forests

South America (Amazon)

Retains a significant area of good quality forests

African Rainforest

Degraded with remnants of good forest

Madagascar

No more forests

Indonesian Rainforest

Decreasing due to palm oil plantations

Global Deforestation Rate: Approximately 50%

Boreal Forests

Location: Northern regions

Map Distortion: Maps distort the size of boreal forests

Appear larger than they are
Map projections shrinking the equator and enlarging polar regions

Tree type: taiga forests with small, evergreen trees that grow slowly

Taiga: a biome characterized by coniferous forests

Mostly of pines,spruces and larches

Carbon Dioxide Absorption: Trees absorb very little carbon dioxide compared to tropical rainforests

Importance of Tropical Rainforests

High Carbon Dioxide Uptake

Lush vegetation with rapid growth
Large leaves absorbs amounts of carbon dioxide

Climate Change Mitigation

Plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change

Groundwater Depletion

When pumping out water via wells in ground
The groundwater level decreases
With many wells and significant pumping
Commonly used for irrigating crops
Accounted for most water usage in United States

Ogallala Aquifer

Largest aquifer in North America
Ideal studying groundwater depletion
An underground layer of rock or soil
Contains water that can be extracted

Location and scale

Beneath the High Plains (east of the Rocky Mountains)
Extends over 1,000 miles north-south and 500 miles east-west
Underlies parts of eight states (south dakota, texas and new mexico)

Water volume

The aquifer’s porous space (up to a third of the rock volume) filled with water
A lake up to 200 feet deep across eight states

Aquifer Dynamics

Consists of permeable sandstone containing water, overlaid by impermeable rock
Filled by rain soaking into the ground in the Rocky Mountains
Rainwater that runs off into rivers does not replenish the aquifer

Artesian Wells

Water level inside the ground matched the level in the nearby hills/mountains
Drilling a well created an artesian system,water rises to surface due to pressure
Water rises naturally above the top of the aquifer (due to pressure)

Depletion Over Time

Increased well usage lowered the water level
Level dropped below ground surface, requiring pumping
Invention of rotary electric pumps in 1940s and 1950s
Led to faster water extraction
The Ogallala Aquifer about 50% depleted

Uses and Irrigation Methods

Most extracted water used for irrigated agriculture

Center Point Irrigation

A pipe from the ground extends to the field’s edge
Mounted on wheels
Electric motor rotates the system around the field
Sprinklers continuously spray water
Area gets watered for an hour or two every day or two
System wastes water due to evaporation (up to a third)
Circular irrigation patterns leave the corners of fields dry

The Tragedy of the Commons

Over-pumping water will lead to ruin,
phenomenon called the tragedy of the commons
No single entity owns or controls it, maximize their personal use, lead to the resource’s destruction

Drip irrigation: A potential Solutions

Drip irrigation: method to irrigate farms and grow crops while using quarter of water needed

Emitters: half-gallon, one-gallon, and two gallons per hour emitters

Used at the ends or sides of the tubes

Application: Water delivered to the plants through tubing with pinholes (soaker hose)

Porous tubing buried in the soil

Advantages of Drip Irrigation

Reduced Evaporation

Water delivered to the plants, minimizing water loss through evaporation

Targeted Watering

Rows with crops watered, preventing the growth of weeds in between rows

Minimized Leaf Wetting

Leaves of plants stay dry, reducing risk of fungal diseases

Challenges of implementing Drip Irrigation on a Large Scale

Installing drip irrigation is expensive and labor intensive
Requires thousands of miles of tubing
Significant financial investment
Temporary workforce for installation
Neighbors use traditional sprinklers (Higher electricity bill)
Avoid the upfront costs

Potential Solutions: Regulation

Incentivize drip irrigation
Rules to limit water usage per acres
Farmers use to irrigate their land
Use of sprinklers only irrigate a quarter of their land
No government entity to create said regulation

Over-Pumping Issues Beyond the Ogallala Aquifer

Salinas Valley Example

Excessive water pumping causes the ground level to sink
Ground subsidence leads to uneven surfaces, building damage and cracked roads, broken utilities
Land near ocean below sea level, creates significant problems

Water Sources for Southern California

Relies on long-distance aqueducts to supply water

Los Angeles Aqueduct: Brings water from the east side of the Sierra Nevada into the San Fernando Valley

Colorado Aqueduct: Transports water from Parker Dam/Lake Havasu on the Colorado River across the desert to Southern California and San Diego

California Aqueduct: Starts in the Bay Area and brings water down the Central Valley, over the mountains and into southern california

Background: Early 1900s Los Angeles

Los angeles - small growing city

Major incentives for growth

Railroad companies promoted tourism and settlement
State and city governments wanted population growth to boost tax revenue

Problem: Limited water supply threatened continued expansion

Owens Valley and the Owens River

Location: East of the Sierra Nevada, in a desert region

Climate: Cold winters, hot summers and dry weather

Owens River: allowed local agriculture to thrive: farms and orchards

Natural flow: Terminated in Owens Lake, a large saline lake with no outlet

The Water Grab: Los Angeles Secret Strategy

LA needed water > Targeted the Owens River

California water law: Whoever owns land along a river had rights to the water

City employees were sent undercover

Pose as settlers and farmers
Secretly purchase key riverbank properties
Only buy land adjacent to the river to gain water rights
Few years > LA owned all the river-access land, and the water

Construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct (1913)

233 miles long, gravity-powered (no pumps needed)
Starts at 5,000 feet above sea level in Owens Valley
Engineering marvel: Contoured to run along mountain faces
Uses siphons to cross valleys
Built manually-no heavy machinery
Hydroelectric stations were added to generate electricity from the water’s descent

Impact on Owens Valley

LA diverted the entire Owens River into the aqueduct

Result

Local agriculture collapsed
Health hazards due to toxic dust storms

Resistance

Local dynamited the aqueduct multiple times
LA respond with armed guards and gun battles
Owens Valley remains arid and dry today

Southern California’s Three Major Aqueducts

Los Angeles Aqueduct

First major aqueduct
Constructed to bring water from the Owens Valley
Built in the early 1900s

Colorado River Aqueduct

Built 20 years after the L.A Aqueduct (1930s)
Crosses the desert, passing Joshua Tree National Park
Water covered to prevent evaporation
Ends at Lake Matthews, between Corona and Riverside

California Aqueduct (State Water Project)

Built in the 1950’s
Transports water from Northern California down the San Joaquin Valley
Pumps water uphill for hundreds of miles, uses massive pump stations and power lines
Crosses over the grapevine and ends in Southern California
Southern California supported it, Northern California opposed
Due to water diversion

Semic Risk from the San Andreas Fault

All three aqueducts cross the San Andreas Fault
Vulnerable to earthquakes
Fault is overdue for a major quake
Last moved in 1856
30 feet of horizontal displacement
Next earthquake: all three aqueducts likely to be non-functional
Repair will take weeks to months

Ground Water Supply in Long Beach

Half of long beach’s water comes from groundwater
20 water wells near LBC
Near Clark Ave, camouflaged in bougainvilla in small park

Problem: Seawater Intrusion

Over-pumping causes aquifer pressure to drop
Seawater begins seeping into the aquifer, ruins freshwater supplies
Salt levels rise too much, well must be abandoned
Several wells near coast been lost

Long Beach Groundwater Issue

Pumping groundwater too fast causes seawater intrusion (long Beach)
Saltwater moves into freshwater aquifers
Created the Alamitos Barrier Project, injects water into the ground
Through wells, maintains pressure and push seawater back

Solution: Recycled Water

LBC using recycled water to supply the barrier and for irrigation
Water comes from sewage treatment

Three levels

Primary Treatment: removes solids, leave the water foul and unsafe
Secondary treatment: Adds bacteria to break down organic matter

Water is still cloudy, contains pathogens

Tertiary Treatment: Further purification: clarifies, disinfects filters, and chemically treats the water
End product is very clean
Public stigma (“Toilet to tap”)

Use of Recycled Water

Recharging aquifers to stop saltwater intrusion
Dual plumbing systems (potable vs . non-potable water)
Too expensive to install citywide

How to spot Recycled Water

Desalination vs. Recycled Water

Desalination: turning seawater into freshwater
Effective but very expensive

Irrigation systems with purple sprinkler heads

Natural Purification with Sand

Water purification uses sand filtration
Water passes through a 10-foot sand bed to remove impurities
Recycled water injected into the ground must travel through underground sand
Goes through 10,000 feet of natural filtration before its reused - 1,000 times