Psych 1010 Final Exam Review Flashcards
Chapter 1: Perspectives of Psychology
Be able to identify the different perspectives of psychology.
Psychodynamic Perspective:
Focuses on the dynamic interplay of unconscious drives and conflicts shaping behavior. Rooted in the idea that human actions are often the result of unconscious motives.
Emphasizes early childhood experiences as critical determinants of personality development. The impact of these experiences can persist throughout life, influencing relationships and behavior patterns.
Key Figures:
Sigmund Freud: Developed psychoanalysis, emphasizing the role of the unconscious mind.
Erik Erikson: Extended Freud's theories with a focus on psychosocial development across the lifespan.
Behavioral Perspective:
Emphasizes the role of learning and environmental factors in shaping behavior. Behaviors are acquired through conditioning and reinforcement.
Focuses on observable behaviors rather than internal mental processes. This perspective prioritizes empirical evidence and measurable outcomes.
Key Figures:
John B. Watson: Advocated for the study of observable behavior and founded behaviorism.
B.F. Skinner: Developed operant conditioning, demonstrating how behavior is influenced by consequences.
Ivan Pavlov: Discovered classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs.
Cognitive Perspective:
Studies mental processes such as memory, problem-solving, and decision-making. Explores how people acquire, process, and store information.
Explores how people perceive, process, and remember information. Cognition influences emotions and behaviors.
Key Figures:
Jean Piaget: Studied cognitive development in children, outlining stages of intellectual growth.
Ulric Neisser: Considered the 'father of cognitive psychology,' contributed to cognitive research and terminology.
Humanistic Perspective:
Emphasizes the importance of subjective experience, self-concept, and personal growth. Focuses on individuals' inherent drive toward self-actualization and fulfillment.
Focuses on individuals' potential for self-actualization and fulfillment. People are viewed as inherently good and motivated to improve.
Key Figures:
Carl Rogers: Developed client-centered therapy, emphasizing empathy and unconditional positive regard.
Abraham Maslow: Proposed the hierarchy of needs, with self-actualization at the top.
Biological Perspective:
Examines the physiological and genetic bases of behavior. Investigates the role of the brain, nervous system, and hormones in psychological processes.
Investigates the role of the brain, nervous system, and hormones in psychological processes. Neurotransmitters, brain structures, and genetic factors are key areas of study.
Key Areas:
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons.
Brain Structures: Regions of the brain associated with specific functions.
Genetic Influences: Role of genes in predisposing individuals to certain behaviors or psychological disorders.
Evolutionary Perspective:
Applies principles of evolution to understand behavior and mental processes. Examines how behaviors and traits have evolved over time to promote survival and reproduction.
Considers adaptive functions of behaviors. Behaviors that enhance survival are more likely to be passed on to future generations.
Chapter 2: Research Methods
Research methods:
Descriptive
Observational studies: Involves observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.
Surveys: A method of gathering information from a large group of people by asking questions, which allows researchers to collect data on attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.
Case studies: In-depth investigations of a single individual or group, providing detailed qualitative data that can reveal unique insights.
Experimental
studies: Involve manipulating one or more variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable, allowing researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent variable: The variable that is measured to see if it is affected by the independent variable.
Control group: A group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used as a benchmark to measure the effects of the independent variable on the experimental group.
Experimental group: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention, allowing researchers to observe the effects of the independent variable compared to the control group.
Random assignment: The process of randomly assigning participants to different groups in an experiment to ensure that each group is similar before treatment, which helps to eliminate biases in the study.
Correlation:
Strength- the strength of a correlation indicates how closely two variables relate to each other, with a value closer to +1 or -1 suggesting a stronger relationship, while a value around 0 indicates little to no correlation.
Direction- the direction of a correlation reveals whether the relationship between two variables is positive or negative, with a positive correlation indicating that as one variable increases, the other also tends to increase, while a negative correlation shows that as one variable increases, the other decreases.
Causality- the principle that establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables, suggesting that a change in one variable directly results in a change in the other.
Theories, hypothesis, and generalizability:
Know how each is used.
Theories: Broad explanations for phenomena based on a substantial body of evidence, providing frameworks for understanding different aspects of psychology.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction derived from theories that can be evaluated through research and experimentation, helping researchers to confirm or refute theoretical expectations.
Generalizability: The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to broader populations or real-world settings, which depends on factors like sample size and diversity.
When it does or does not apply to a study.
Theory:
Applies when there is an existing body of knowledge or a framework that can be used to explain the phenomena under investigation.
Does not apply when the research is purely exploratory and there is no prior theory to guide the investigation.
Hypothesis:
Applies when the research aims to test a specific prediction or relationship between variables.
Does not apply in purely descriptive studies where the goal is simply to observe and describe phenomena without making any specific predictions.
Generalizability:
Applies when the researcher wants to extend the findings beyond the specific sample or context studied.
Does not apply when the research is highly specific to a particular group or situation, and there is no intention to generalize the results to other populations or settings.
Be able to identify independent and dependent variables.
Independent Variable:
Definition: The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effect on another variable.
Characteristics:
It is the presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.
The researcher has control over its levels or conditions.
It is often denoted as 'X'.
Examples:
In a study examining the effect of caffeine on alertness, the amount of caffeine given to participants is the independent variable.
In an experiment testing the impact of different teaching methods on student performance, the teaching method used is the independent variable.
Dependent Variable:
Definition: The variable that is measured or observed to determine if it is affected by the independent variable.
Characteristics:
It is the presumed effect in a cause-and-effect relationship.
The researcher measures its value to see if it changes in response to the independent variable.
It is often denoted as 'Y'.
Examples:
In a study examining the effect of caffeine on alertness, the level of alertness (measured through tests or self-reports) is the dependent variable.
In an experiment testing the impact of different teaching methods on student performance, student grades or test scores are the dependent variable.
Chapter 3: Biology and Behavior
Neuron:
How it works.
A neuron transmits information through electrical impulses, allowing communication between different parts of the brain and the body. It consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon, which work together to process and relay signals.
Resting Potential: The neuron maintains a negative electrical charge inside relative to the outside (approximately -70mV). This is maintained by ion pumps and channels.
Action Potential: When a neuron receives sufficient stimulation, it triggers an action potential, a rapid and brief reversal of the electrical potential across the cell membrane.
Depolarization: Sodium ions (Na+) rush into the cell, making the inside more positive.
Repolarization: Potassium ions (K+) rush out of the cell, restoring the negative charge inside.
Propagation: The action potential travels down the axon to the axon terminals.
Synaptic Transmission:
At the axon terminals, the electrical signal is converted into a chemical signal. Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft (the space between neurons).
Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, which can trigger a new action potential or inhibit one.
Its parts.
Dendrites: Branch-like extensions that receive signals from other neurons.
Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and other organelles, integrating signals received by the dendrites.
Axon: A long, slender projection that transmits electrical signals (action potentials) away from the cell body.
Myelin Sheath: A fatty substance that insulates the axon and speeds up signal transmission. It is formed by glial cells (Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system and oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system).
Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath where the axon is exposed, allowing for rapid ion exchange and signal regeneration (saltatory conduction).
Axon Terminals (Terminal Buttons): The ends of the axon that release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Synapse: The junction between two neurons (or a neuron and a target cell) where communication occurs.
Diagram to be labeled.
A typical neuron diagram should include labels for the following parts:
Dendrites- the branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons and transmit them towards the cell body.
Cell Body (Soma)- the main part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and organelles, responsible for maintaining the cell's health and processing incoming signals.
Nucleus- the control center of the neuron that contains genetic material and regulates cellular functions.
Axon Hillock (where the axon originates from the cell body)- the section of the neuron that serves as a critical junction, integrating signals received from the dendrites and cell body to determine whether to transmit an action potential down the axon.
Axon- the elongated fiber that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body toward other neurons or target tissues, facilitating communication within the nervous system.
Myelin Sheath- the insulating layer that surrounds the axon, composed of glial cells, which increases the speed of action potential transmission and enhances the efficiency of signal propagation along the neuron.
Schwann Cell (if in PNS)- a type of glial cell that forms the myelin sheath around axons in the peripheral nervous system, aiding in the regeneration of damaged fibers and supporting faster transmission of electrical signals.
Oligodendrocyte (if in CNS)- a type of glial cell that produces the myelin sheath in the central nervous system, contributing to faster signal transmission and playing a role in the maintenance of neuronal health.
Nodes of Ranvier- gaps in the myelin sheath that allow for the saltatory conduction of action potentials, facilitating rapid electrical signal transmission between the nodes.
Synapse:
How it works.
At a synapse, the transmission of signals occurs through the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron, which diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to either excitation or inhibition of the target neuron.
Diagram to be labeled.
Components of a synapse:
Presynaptic neuron
Postsynaptic neuron
Axon Terminal: The specific location where the neuron communicates with other neurons.
Synaptic Vesicles: Small membrane-bound structures in the axon terminal that store neurotransmitters, releasing them into the synaptic cleft during neurotransmission.
Neurotransmitters:
How they work.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse from one neuron to another, influencing various bodily functions and behaviors. Their release into the synaptic cleft triggers specific receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to excitatory or inhibitory responses. Different types of neurotransmitters include dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, each playing unique roles in mood regulation, arousal, and overall neural communication.
Reuptake process.
Reuptake process: The mechanism by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after they have performed their function in the synaptic cleft, effectively recycling these chemical messengers and regulating their availability for subsequent signaling. This process is crucial in maintaining balance and preventing overstimulation of neural circuits. Some factors that can influence reuptake include the type of neurotransmitter involved, the presence of specific transport proteins, and the overall health of the neuron. Misregulation of this process can lead to various psychological disorders, underscoring its significance in both normal brain function and mental health. Additionally, medication such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) can modulate this process, providing therapeutic effects in conditions like depression and anxiety by prolonging the action of neurotransmitters in the synapse.
Know the ones mentioned in lecture.
Dopamine:
Function: Involved in reward, motivation, motor control, and mood regulation.
Associated Disorders: Parkinson's disease (due to loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra), schizophrenia (associated with excess dopamine activity).
Serotonin:
Function: Involved in mood regulation, sleep, appetite, and aggression.
Associated Disorders: Depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline):
Function: Involved in alertness, arousal, and the fight-or-flight response.
Associated Disorders: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression.
Glutamate:
Function: Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in learning and memory.
Associated Disorders: Excitotoxicity (neuronal damage due to excessive glutamate activity), stroke, traumatic brain injury.
GABA
Function: Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, crucial for regulating neuronal excitability and preventing overactivity. Associated Disorders: Anxiety disorders, epilepsy, and various mood disorders.
Be familiar with:
Genetic-environmental interaction- the interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental factors, which can significantly influence the development of psychological traits and psychiatric disorders.
Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception
Transduction- the process by which sensory stimuli are converted into neural signals that the brain can interpret, enabling us to experience and respond to our environment.
Vision Process- the series of steps through which light enters the eye, is focused by the lens, and is converted to electrical signals by the retina, ultimately leading to the perception of visual images.
Hearing- the process by which sound waves enter the ear, are transmitted through the auditory canal, and are converted into neural impulses by the cochlea, allowing us to perceive sound.
Be familiar with:
Pain and its perception- the complex process through which nociceptive stimuli are detected by sensory receptors, transmitted along neural pathways, and processed in the brain, ultimately influencing our emotional and physical response to harmful stimuli.
Top-down and bottom-up processing- two fundamental approaches to perception: top-down processing involves using pre-existing knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information, while bottom-up processing relies solely on the sensory input itself to form perceptions without preconceived notions.
Chapter 5: Consciousness
Addiction:
The psychological aspects. Addiction has psychological components that include cravings, reliance on substance use or behaviors for coping, and the development of patterns that reinforce compulsive activities. This often leads to heightened anxiety and distress when the substance or behavior is unavailable, making recovery more challenging. Furthermore, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is often employed to address these psychological factors by helping individuals recognize and change maladaptive thought patterns that contribute to their addiction. Additionally, understanding the role of reinforcement and reward systems in the brain can aid in developing more effective treatment strategies for addiction management.
Chapter 6: Learning
Classical conditioning- a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus, often illustrated by Pavlov's experiments with dogs, where a neutral stimulus (like a bell) becomes associated with food, eliciting a conditioned response (salivation) even in the absence of the food.
Operant conditioning- a learning process in which behaviors are modified through the use of rewards (reinforcement) or punishments, focusing on the consequences of an action to determine whether it will be repeated. This concept, largely developed by B.F. Skinner, emphasizes how positive reinforcement can increase desired behaviors while negative reinforcement and punishment can decrease undesired behaviors.
Observational learning (Bandura)- a type of learning that occurs through observing and imitating the behaviors of others, as demonstrated in Bandura's Bobo doll experiments, which illustrated how children can learn aggressive behaviors simply by watching adults interact with the doll.
Chapter 7: Memory
Structure of memory-
Memory is typically divided into three major components: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory memory: This is the initial stage of memory, where sensory information is stored for a very brief period, typically less than a second, allowing individuals to perceive stimuli from their environment.
Short-term memory: Also known as working memory, this involves the temporary storage of information for a limited time, about 20 to 30 seconds, and can hold around 7±2 items.
Long-term memory: This allows for the storage of information over an extended period, potentially a lifetime, and is further categorized into explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memories.
Explicit memory: Involves conscious recollection of facts and events, which can be further subdivided into episodic memory (personal experiences) and semantic memory (general knowledge).
Implicit memory: Refers to the unconscious retention of information, which influences behavior without the individual being aware of it, such as skills and conditioned responses.
Informational Processing Model- The framework that describes how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved, emphasizing the stages of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Memory reconstruction- The process of recalling memories, which can be influenced by various factors such as suggestion, context, and individual perception, potentially leading to distortions or inaccuracies in the remembered events.
Be familiar with:
How to improve recall/studying habits-
Utilize active learning techniques, such as summarizing, questioning, and teaching others.
Implement spaced repetition to reinforce memory over time.
Create mnemonic devices to aid in the retention of complex information.
Establish a conducive study environment with minimal distractions.
Chapter 8: Cognition
Decision making (includes heuristics)- cognitive shortcuts that simplify the decision-making process, often leading to faster conclusions but potential biases.
Problem solving- the process of finding solutions to difficult or complex issues, which can involve various strategies, including trial and error, algorithmic approaches, and creative thinking.
Intelligence:
Traditional definition- the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Theories of:
Spearman- proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence, which includes a general intelligence factor (g) that underlies all cognitive abilities, as well as specific factors (s) related to particular tasks.
Gardner- developed the theory of multiple intelligences, suggesting that intelligence is not a single entity but rather a collection of distinct modalities, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences.
Sternberg- proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence, which includes three components: analytical intelligence (problem-solving abilities), creative intelligence (the capacity to deal with new situations using past experiences), and practical intelligence (the skills needed to adapt to everyday life and interact effectively in different environments).
Be familiar with:
Cognitive Load Theory: A framework that explains how the amount of mental effort being used in the working memory can affect learning and performance, emphasizing the importance of balancing intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive loads.
Core Principles:
Limited Working Memory: Acknowledges that working memory has a limited capacity, which can be easily overloaded by excessive cognitive demands.
Cognitive Load Types:
Intrinsic Load: The inherent complexity of the material that needs to be learned, which is determined by the number of elements and their interactivity. It cannot be altered by instructional design but must be accommodated.
Extraneous Load: The cognitive burden imposed by the way information is presented, rather than the material itself. Poor instructional design can increase extraneous load, hindering learning. Strategies include reducing unnecessary information and clarifying presentation.
Germane Load: The cognitive effort dedicated to processing and constructing schemas or mental models. Effective instructional design aims to optimize germane load, facilitating deep learning. Strategies include encouraging active processing and relating new information to existing knowledge.
The Interplay of Loads: Effective learning occurs when the total cognitive load (intrinsic + extraneous + germane) does not exceed the learner’s available working memory capacity. Instructional design should minimize extraneous load and manage intrinsic load to promote germane load.
Instructional Design Implications:
Minimize Extraneous Load: Use clear and concise language, reduce distractions, and ensure that the presentation format is easy to understand. Techniques include:
Modality Effect: Presenting information in both visual and auditory formats can reduce load compared to using only one format.
Coherence Principle: Removing irrelevant words, pictures, and sounds.
Signaling Principle: Using cues or signals to highlight essential information.
Chunking: Organizing information into manageable units can enhance memory retention and improve learning efficiency.
Chapter 9: Human Development
Piaget and his Cognitive Stage Theory of Development- proposed that children progress through four stages of cognitive development: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational, each characterized by distinct ways of thinking and understanding the world
Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years, where infants learn about the world through their senses and actions.
Preoperational Stage: Ages 2 to 7, characterized by the development of language and imagination, but lacking logical reasoning.
Concrete Operational Stage: Ages 7 to 11, where children begin to think logically about concrete events and understand the concept of conservation.
Formal Operational Stage: Ages 12 and up, where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly and reason logically.
Key Features of Each Stage:
Sensorimotor: Learning through sensory experiences and motor activities.
Preoperational: Egocentrism and symbolic play; difficulty understanding the viewpoints of others.
Concrete Operational: Mastery of organizational skills such as classification and seriation.
Formal Operational: Ability to formulate hypothesis and engage in deductive reasoning.
Postformal Operational: Recognition that knowledge is not purely black and white; individuals understand that complex, subjective reasoning often plays a role in problem-solving.
Pre-natal development (conception to birth)- the process of growth and maturation that occurs in the womb, including the stages of zygote, embryo, and fetus, each marked by critical developments in organ formation and overall growth.
Compare and contrast Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and Haidt’s Moral Foundations theory
Kohlberg’s Theory: Proposes a stage-based model of moral development consisting of three levels (pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional) where individuals progress through specific stages of moral reasoning based on justice and rights.
Haidt’s Moral Foundations Theory: Suggests that moral reasoning is driven by innate psychological mechanisms linked to five main foundations (care, fairness, loyalty, authority, and sanctity), emphasizing the role of emotions and cultural context in moral judgments.
Be familiar with:
Parenting styles:
Authoritative: Characterized by high demands and high responsiveness, promoting independence while maintaining limits.
Key Characteristics:
Clear Expectations: Authoritative parents establish clear rules and expectations for their children's behavior. These rules are typically age-appropriate and are communicated effectively to the child.
Responsiveness: Authoritative parents are highly responsive to their children's emotional and developmental needs. They show warmth, empathy, and understanding, and they are willing to listen to their children's concerns and perspectives.
Reasoning and Explanation: Authoritative parents provide reasons and explanations for their rules and expectations. They help children understand the rationale behind the rules, which fosters a sense of fairness and justice.
Autonomy Support: Authoritative parents encourage independence and autonomy in their children. They allow children to make choices and decisions within reasonable limits, promoting a sense of self-efficacy and self-reliance.
Consistent Discipline: Authoritative parents use discipline as an opportunity for teaching and guidance, rather than solely as a form of punishment. They are consistent in their disciplinary approach and focus on helping children learn from their mistakes
Authoritarian: Defined by high demands and low responsiveness, often enforcing strict rules with little emotional support.
Key Characteristics:
Strict Rules and Expectations: Authoritarian parents set numerous and often inflexible rules for their children. These rules are typically non-negotiable and may not be explained in a way that children can understand their underlying reasons.
Low Responsiveness: Authoritarian parents are generally not very responsive to their children's emotional needs. They may not show much warmth, empathy, or affection, and they may prioritize obedience and compliance over emotional connection.
Unquestioning Obedience: Authoritarian parents expect their children to obey their rules and commands without question. They may use punishment, such as spanking or grounding, to enforce compliance.
Limited Autonomy: Authoritarian parents allow their children very little autonomy or independence. They make most of the decisions for their children and may not encourage them to think for themselves or express their own opinions.
One-Way Communication: Communication in authoritarian families tends to be one-way, with parents
Permissive: Involves high responsiveness but low demands, allowing children considerable freedom while providing little structure.
Key Characteristics:
High Responsiveness: Permissive parents are highly attuned to their children's emotions and needs. They provide warmth, support, and unconditional love, often prioritizing their children's feelings above all else.
Low Demands: Permissive parents make few demands of their children and rarely enforce rules or expectations. They may have difficulty setting limits and are reluctant to impose discipline or consequences for misbehavior.
Avoidance of Confrontation: Permissive parents tend to avoid conflict and confrontation with their children. They may give in to their children's demands to keep the peace and maintain a harmonious relationship.
Freedom and Autonomy: Permissive parents allow their children considerable freedom and autonomy, giving them the space to make their own decisions and explore their interests without much parental guidance or intervention.
Lack of Structure: Permissive parents provide little structure or routine
Neglectful: Features low demands and low responsiveness, where parents are often uninvolved in their child's life.
Key Characteristics:
Low Demands: Neglectful parents make few to no demands on their children. They do not set rules, expectations, or boundaries for their children's behavior.
Low Responsiveness: Neglectful parents are emotionally detached and unresponsive to their children's needs. They may provide little warmth, support, or affection.
Lack of Involvement: Neglectful parents show little interest in their children's activities, achievements, or challenges. They may be unaware of their children's whereabouts, friends, or school performance.
Minimal Supervision: Neglectful parents provide minimal supervision for their children, allowing them to make decisions and navigate life without much parental guidance or oversight.
Emotional Detachment: Neglectful parents may appear indifferent or apathetic towards their children, showing little emotional investment in their well-being.
Chapter 10: Motivation
The four components of motivation and how they work together:
Activation - This involves the initiation of the behavior and reflects the decision to initiate a behavior.
Persistence - This refers to the continued effort toward a goal, even when faced with obstacles or challenges.
Intensity - This describes the vigor or energy that goes into pursuing a goal, influencing the level of effort a person exerts.
Direction - This indicates the pathway or goal toward which the behavior is directed, guiding the individual towards specific objectives.
How the need theories, value/social motive theories, goal setting, rewards, satisfaction interact to determine our behavior/performance (Locke’s Motivational Model): These elements collectively inform our motivations and actions by establishing clear objectives and the importance of attaining satisfaction through rewards, thus influencing persistence, intensity, and direction in our behavior. By integrating both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators, individuals are more likely to remain committed to their goals, enhance their performance, and experience greater fulfillment in their achievements. This interplay emphasizes the necessity of goal clarity and the balance of rewards to sustain motivation over time.
Self-determination theory: This theory posits that individuals are motivated by a need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, suggesting that fulfilling these needs enhances intrinsic motivation and overall performance.
Arousal theory (Yerkes-Dodson law): This theory suggests that there is an optimal level of arousal for performance, whereby too little arousal can lead to underperformance due to lack of motivation, while too much arousal can result in anxiety and hinder performance.
Chapter 14: Stress and Health
PTSD: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is a mental health condition that can occur after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event, characterized by symptoms such as flashbacks, severe anxiety, and uncontrollable thoughts about the event.
Autonomic Nervous system:
The autonomic nervous system consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, which work together to regulate involuntary bodily functions; the sympathetic system prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses in stressful situations, while the parasympathetic system promotes 'rest and digest' activities, restoring balance and calming the body after stressors. Understanding the interplay between these systems is crucial for recognizing how stress impacts both mental and physical health. Additionally, chronic stress can lead to an overactive sympathetic response, which may result in various health issues, including hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and weakened immune function. Furthermore, awareness of stress management techniques, such as mindfulness, exercise, and relaxation strategies, can play a significant role in mitigating the adverse effects of stress on overall health.
Chapter 12: Personality (4 questions)
Psychoanalysis: A therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund Freud, focusing on the role of unconscious processes and childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.
Trait theories
The five-factor model – know the traits and how to identify them:
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, which provide a comprehensive framework for evaluating personality.
Reciprocal Determinism- a concept proposed by Albert Bandura, which emphasizes the interaction between personal factors, behavior, and the environment in shaping an individual's personality and actions. Additionally, understanding the role of social learning and observational learning is crucial, as it highlights how individuals can learn and imitate behaviors from those around them, further influencing their personality development.
Chapter 13: Social Psychology (6 questions)
Attribution theory- the framework used to understand how individuals explain the causes of behavior, either by attributing actions to internal dispositions or external situations. This theory is essential in assessing interpersonal interactions and can lead to biases such as the fundamental attribution error, where people tend to overemphasize personal characteristics and downplay situational factors when judging others.
Conformity- the tendency of individuals to adjust their behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs to align with those of a group. This phenomenon can occur due to social pressure, a desire for acceptance, or the influence of group norms, and it can significantly impact decision-making and social dynamics.
Social norms / social roles- the unwritten rules and expectations that govern behavior in social situations. Social norms dictate how individuals are expected to behave in various contexts, influencing actions and thoughts, while social roles define the responsibilities and behaviors appropriate to specific positions within a group. These dynamics play a crucial role in shaping our interactions and perceptions in society.
Chapter 15: Psychological Disorders (5 questions)
Depression- a mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and a lack of interest or pleasure in most activities. Symptoms may also include changes in appetite or weight, sleep disturbances, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, and suicidal thoughts, all of which can significantly impair daily functioning and quality of life.
Schizophrenia- a severe mental disorder characterized by distortions in thinking, perception, emotional regulation, and social behavior. Symptoms often include hallucinations (typically auditory), delusions, disorganized thinking, and impaired functioning, which can lead to a significant decrease in the ability to perform daily activities and maintain relationships.
Anxiety disorders:
Panic attacks- episodes of intense fear or discomfort that develop abruptly, often accompanied by physical symptoms such as heart palpitations, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, and feelings of impending doom. These episodes can lead to a persistent worry about having future attacks, significantly affecting an individual's daily life and activities.
Panic disorder- a type of anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, along with a persistent concern about having more attacks or significant changes in behavior related to the attacks.
Phobias- intense, irrational fears of specific objects, situations, or activities that provoke immediate anxiety or panic. Individuals with phobias often go to great lengths to avoid these triggers, which can interfere with their daily functioning and overall quality of life.
Personality disorder:
Narcissism- a personality disorder marked by grandiosity, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy for others. Individuals with narcissistic personality disorder often believe they are superior to others and may exploit relationships for personal gain.