Unit 0-3 Midterm AP Psychology (all vocab)

Psychodynamic: historical perspective used by Freud to explain to the unconscious on behavior. 

Behaviorism: the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.  

Humanistic psychology: historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential for personal growth.

Cognitive: the perspective that focuses on brain functioning including perception, thinking, memory, and language.

Biological (Neuroscience):  perspective which focuses on how brain chemistry, genes, and hormones, impact behavior. 

Social-cultural: perspective which focuses on the impacts of our culture, family, friends, and society.

Evolutionary: perspective which focuses on the impacts of our ancestors on behavior. 

Confidentiality: personal information about subjects is to never be shared. 

Informed Consent: subjects must give written consent to participate in an experiment. 

Case study: an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Survey: a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Population: all the cases in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn.

Random sample: a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Representative sample: A subset of the population carefully chosen to represent the proportionate diversity of the population as a whole

Naturalistic observation: observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.  *Naturalistic observation doesn’t explain, it only describes.

Experiment: a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable); makes it possible to study cause and effect relationships.

Operational definition:  specifically names the operations (steps or procedures) that the experimenter must use to control or measure the variables in the experiment.  This allows the experiment to be replicated.

Random assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Double-blind procedure: an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo.  This is commonly used in drug studies.

Placebo: a pseudo treatment, in drug studies, a pill with no drug in it.

Placebo effect: experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by administering a placebo, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Experimental group: in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, to one version of the independent variable.

Control group: in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Independent variable (IV): the experimental factor that is manipulated and tested.  Ex. studying the effects of a drug on memory, the drug is the IV.

Dependent variable (DV): the experimental factor that is being measured.  Ex. studying the effects of a drug on memory, memory is the DV.

Confounding variable: a factor other than the IV that might produce an effect in an experiment. Ex. the temperature of the room, external noises, etc.

Median: the measure of central tendency that is the middle score in a distribution (falls at the 50th percentile); half the scores are above it and have are below it.

Standard deviation: a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal curve (normal distribution): a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Statistical significance: a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. P-value = less than 0.05%

Correlation: a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.  *Correlation does not show causation.

Correlation coefficient: a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).

Scatterplot:  a graphed cluster of dots each of which represents the values of two variables.  The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables.  The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Twin Biology: study the effects of heredity and environment two sets of twins, identical and fraternal, have come in handy. Behavior geneticists study the effects of shared and unique environments on total or partial genetic makeup

Separated Twins Similarities: Personality, intelligences, interests, fears, abilities, aptitudes, brain waves, and heart rates. 

Nature vs Nurture: Some traits, like physical traits, are fixed for the most part. Psychological traits are impacted by the environment. Genes lay the foundation but are pliable

Neuron: Nerve cells, the body has billions of them, the main way our body communicates. 

Dendrites: Branching extensions at the cell body. Receives messages from other neurons.

Axon: Long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons.

Terminals of axon (terminal buttons): Branched ending of axons. Transmit neurotransmitters to other neurons.

Action potential: A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane. 

Threshold: When the depolarizing current (positive ions) minus the hyperpolarizing current (negative ions) exceed minimum intensity (threshold) the neuron fires an action potential.

All-or-None Response: When depolarizing current exceeds the threshold a neuron will fire, and below threshold it will not.

Neurotransmitters: chemicals released from the sending neuron, travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate an action potential. 

Reuptake: Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons.

Agonist: Chemical that mimics or excites a neurotransmitter. (Example: Taking an SSRI to block serotonin reuptake)

Antagonist: Chemical that inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter. (Example: Taking a DRA to inhibit the overproduction of dopamine)

Endorphins: Neurotransmitter that deals with the perception of pleasure and pain. The body’s natural painkiller. 

Acetylcholine: Neurotransmitter that plays a role in muscle action, memory, and learning. Malfunctions include Alzhemier’s Disease. 

Dopamine: Neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. An oversupply is related to schizophrenia, an undersupply is related to Parkinson’s Disease. 

Serotonin: Neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, and sleep. An undersupply is related to depression.

Central Nervous System: the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System: the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System: The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.  You have “some” control of this.

Autonomic Nervous System: Part of the PNS that controls the glands and other muscles.  Functions automatically.

Sympathetic Nervous System: division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.  Gets you ready for fight or flight.

Parasympathetic Nervous System: division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its 

energy.  Brings you back down after the threat is over.

Endocrine System: the body’s “slow” chemical communication system. Communication is carried out by hormones synthesized by a set of glands.

Hormones: chemicals synthesized by the endocrine glands and secreted in the bloodstream. Hormones affect the brain and many other tissues of the body.

fMRI: produces images while performing a task (reciting alphabet) (shows structure and function)

Medulla [muh-DUL-uh]: base of the brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus [THAL-uh-muss]: the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Cerebellum: The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem. It helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance.  It also plays a role in the formation of procedural memories (implicit or procedural memories, EX. riding a bike)

Limbic System: doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebrum, associated with emotions such as fear, aggression and drives for food and sex

Amygdala: two almond-shaped neural clusters linked to emotion of fear and anger.

Hippocampus: a structure in the limbic system which is responsible for the formation of most new memories (explicit memories, EX. facts)

Hypothalamus: lies below (hypo) the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and emotions. Helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. 

Frontal Lobe: Concerned with reasoning, planning, parts of speech and movement (motor cortex), emotions, and problem-solving.

Temporal Lobe: Concerned with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli (hearing) and memory (hippocampus).

Occipital Lobe: Located at the back of the brain, behind the parietal lobe and temporal lobe. Concerned with many aspects of vision.

Parietal Lobe: Concerned with perception of stimuli related to touch, pressure, temperature and pain.

Aphasia: an impairment of language

Broca’s Area: controls the physical activity of speaking

Wernicke’s Area: controls language comprehension

Plasticity: refers to the brain’s ability to modify itself after some type of injury or illness.When we are young our brains are more plastic.

Psychoactive drugs:  chemicals that change how you think and feel and usually produce a tolerance, later using larger doses to produce the same effect

Depressants:  drugs that slow & calm neural activity 

Alcohol:  impairs judgment & inhibitions & prevents recent events to go into long-term memory.

Stimulant drugs: excite neural activity and speed-up body functions.

Caffeine and nicotine: increase heart and breathing rates, and other autonomic functions to provide energy.

Cocaine: induces immediate euphoria followed by a crash. Blocks reuptake of dopamine, serotonin & norepinephrine.

Hallucinogens: are psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

LSD: (lysergic acid diethylamide) powerful hallucinogenic drug (ergot fungus) also known as acid.

Consciousness:  our subjective awareness of ourselves & our environment

Parallel processing: processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem at the same time

Sleep: periodic, natural loss of consciousness, distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

Circadian rhythm: our biological clock; regular body rhythms (for example, of temperature & wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

NREM sleep: non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

REM sleep: rapid eye movement; recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; also known as paradoxical sleep, because muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active

REM rebound: tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

Insomnia: Recurring problems falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy: Sudden sleep attacks where the afflicted lapses directly in REM sleep

Dream: a sequences of images, emotions, & thoughts occurring in a sleeping person’s mind, occur during REM

Activation-synthesis theory: the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity spreading up from the brainstem; brain “weaves” stories around the random neural activity

Sensation: process by which our sensory receptors & nervous system receive & represent stimulus energies from our environment

Bottom-up processing: information processing that begins with the sensory receptors & works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information (also called feature detection)

Top-down processing: information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience & expectations

Transduction: conversion of one form of energy into another; in sensation, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds, & smells, into neural impulses the brain can interpret

Absolute threshold: minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time 

Signal detection theory: theory predicting how & when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise); assumes there is no single absolute threshold & that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, & alertness

Difference threshold: minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time (also known as just noticeable difference.

Sensory adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

Pupil: adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

Accommodation: process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina

Retina: light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods & cones plus layers of neurons that begin the process of visual information

Rods: retinal receptors that detect black, white, & gray, & are sensitive to movement; rods are necessary for peripheral & twilight vision, when cones don’t respond, 120 million rods

Cones: retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina & that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; cones detect fine detail & give rise to color sensations, 6 million cones

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory: theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, & one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color (explains color blindness)

Opponent-process theory: theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, & black-white) enable color vision; for example, some cells are stimulated by green & inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red & inhibited by green (explains afterimages)

Cochlea: coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid tigger nerve impulses

Basilar membrane: located in the cochlea, covered in hair cells (cilia), which bend with vibrations and trigger neural impulses to the auditory nerve

Sensorineural hearing loss: most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve; also called nerve deafness. Cannot be reversed, but hearing can be semi-restored with a cochlear implant 

Conduction hearing loss: less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea (bones of the middle ear)

Place theory: theory that links the pitch that we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated (also called place coding). Place theory explains how we hear high-pitched sounds but not low-pitched.

Frequency theory: theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense pitch (also called temporal coding)

Volley theory: neural cells can alternate firing, achieving a combined frequency above 1000 waves per second

Gate-control theory: theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain; the “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers, & is closed by activity in large fibers or by information coming from the brain

Gustation: sense of taste (chemical sense); six taste sensations that have evolutionary benefits.

Umami - tells us the food has protein to grow & repair tissues.

Oleogustus - tells us the food has fats for energy, insulation, & cell growth.

Olfactory receptors: cells at the top of the nasal cavity, receive stimuli, activate axons traveling to the brain. 

Smell:  is the only sense to bypass the thalamus

Sensory interaction: principle that one sense can influence another, as when smell of food influences taste like Smell + texture + taste = flavor.

Kinesthesis: our movement sense; our system for sensing the position & movement of individual body parts, millions of sensors in muscles, tendons, joints all over body called proprioceptors

Vestibular sense: our balance sense; our sense of body movement & position that enables our sense of balance, controlled by semicircular canals and vestibular sacs 

Perception: the process of organization and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Perceptual set: a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Selective attention: the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.  Also known as the cocktail party effect.

Inattentional blindness: failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Gestalt: an organized whole.  Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into a meaningful whole.

Figure-ground: the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

Similarity: We group similar figures together.

Closure: We fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object.

Depth perception: the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.

Visual cliff: a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.

Binocular cues: depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.  *Remember bi means two so you need 2 eyes for disparity.

Monocular cues: depth cues that depend on the use of one eye.  *Remember mono means one.

Retinal disparity: a binocular cue for perceiving depth.  By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance – the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

Phi Phenomenon: an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession, like Christmas lights.

Memory: the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

Semantic memory: fact based Jeopardy-like information. 

Procedural memory: how-to memory. Ex. tying shoes. 

Episodic memory: memories of certain episodes/events.  Ex. vacations, birthdays, holidays, prom, etc.  Not every episodic memory is a flashbulb memory, but every flashbulb memory is an episodic memory.

Prospective memory: remembering not to forget to do something.  Ex. I can’t forget to call my boss later today.

Explicit memory: memories of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”, such as telling about a vacation or giving directions.  Also called declarative memory.  Goes through the hippocampus (the part of the limbic system responsible for explicit memories of names, images, and events).

Implicit memory: procedural, how-to memory that you don’t have to think about, it’s independent of conscious recollection.  Also called nondeclarative or procedural memory.  Goes through the cerebellum (the part of the brain that plays an important role in forming and storing implicit memories).

The Three Stage of Memory:

Encoding: the processing of information into the memory system.

Storage: the retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory storage.

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin Three Stage Memory Model:

Sensory memory: a quick, fleeting memory that is activated by the five senses.

Short-term/working memory: activated memory that holds a few items (on the average 7) for a brief time (usually 30 seconds) before the information is stored or forgotten. Located in the frontal lobe.

Long-term memory: the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills and experiences.

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin Three Stage Memory: Sensory memory, Short-term/working memory, and Long-term memory. 

Parallel processing: the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions.  We take in a lot of information at the same time, not like a computer in which you can only input one piece of information at a time.

Shallow processing: encoding the shapes, looks, or surface structure of things, especially words, not the meanings.  It is difficult to remember things if it is only shallowly processed.  

Deep processing: encoding something according to its semantics.  

Semantic encoding: the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.

Self-referent processing: encoding something based on how it relates to you.  This is a type of deep processing.

Rehearsal: the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.

Spacing effect: the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Serial position effect: our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

Mnemonics: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Method of Loci:  a mnemonic that helps people remember things by placing them in a familiar place, such as in your house, on a baseball field, etc.

Hierarchies: a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts.

Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units.

Acronym: a type of chunking in which a word is made out of the first letters of the to-be-remembered items.  Ex. HOMES (the 5 Great Lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior)

Amnesia: the loss of memory.

Retrograde amnesia: the inability to remember anything after specific brain surgery or an accident.

Anterograde amnesia: the inability to form new memories after specific brain surgery or an accident.

Dementia: a loss of brain function that occurs with certain diseases. It affects memory, thinking, language, judgment, and behavior.

Working memory: a newer understanding of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s second stage of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Long-term potentiation (LTP): an increase in a synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.  Believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory.

Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person needs to only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

Priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

Retrieval cues: anchor points used to access the information you want to remember later.

Proactive interference: the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information; forward-acting.  

Retroactive interference: the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information; backward-acting.  

Misinformation effect: incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.

Cognition: all of the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Concepts: a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Hierarchies: breaking things down from broad to specific.  Superordinate (broad category), basic (most common), or subordinate.   Ex. Fruit > apple > Granny Smith

Prototypes: a mental image of the best example of a category.  Ex. Most people think of a robin, as opposed to a flamingo, when they hear the word “bird”.  

Algorithm: a logical, step-by-step procedure that, if followed correctly, will eventually solve a specific problem.  Ex. typing in 0000, 0001, 0002, 0003, etc. to figure out a pin number for an ATM card.

Heuristic: a general rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions to a problem.  Ex. using birthdays for a pin number.

Insight: just coming up with the answer, the “aha” moment

Functional fixedness: the tendency to think of an object as functioning only in its usual way or customary way.  As a result, individuals often do not see unusual or innovative uses of familiar objects.

Availability heuristic: judging the likelihood of an event based on readily available personal experiences or new reports.  Ex. not wanting to fly after 9/11.

Representative heuristic: judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example.  Ex. Not thinking a tall, skinny man who likes to read would be a truck driver.

Confirmation bias: a preference for information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence. Ex. only looking at good reviews of something you want.

Belief perseverance: holding onto a belief even after it's been discredited.  Ex. believing that fad diets work.

Intelligence: the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations. 

Fluid intelligence: intelligence that includes reasoning abilities, memory, and speed of information processing. ***Declines with age. Think of the difficulty older people have w/technology. 

Crystallized intelligence: intelligence that is based on life experiences. ***Increases with age. 

Analytical intelligence: the ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, and compare and contrast. 

Creative intelligence: the ability to come up with new ideas, hypothesize, theorize, and use divergent thinking. 

Practical intelligence: the ability to deal with everyday life skills. 

Multiple intelligences: independent intelligences which include a broad range of skills that go beyond traditional school smarts. 

Emotional intelligence: the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions, part of social intelligence. 

Intelligence tests: tests devised to identify a person’s level of intelligence. 

Mental age: the age at which someone is mentally, not necessarily how old someone is chronologically. 

Intelligence quotient: the mathematical formula that was used to determine intelligence scores. Mental age / chronological age x 100. 

Aptitude tests: tests used to predict future performance, such as SATs and LSATs. 

Achievement tests: tests used to measure what was learned, such as SOLs, AP exams, and unit tests. 

Standardization: the process of establishing norms, or rules, for a test, based on a bell (normal) curve. ***Remember, 68% of people fall within one standard deviation (15 points) above or below the mean and 95% fall within 2 standard deviations.*** 

Split-half reliability: looking at the degree of similarity between scores on 2 halves of the test. Is the 1st half consistent with the 2nd half? Are the odd and even questions consistent?

Self-fulfilling prophecy: when a person’s expectations of another person leads that person to behave in an expected way. 

Nature vs Nurture views of intelligence: a person’s intelligence is based both on genetic and environmental factors. 

Stereotype threat: a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. 

• Longitudinal study: studies a person or group of people over an extended period of time.

• Cross-sectional study: compares individuals of various ages at one point in time.

• Zygote: the fertilized egg. The zygote stage lasts 2 weeks in which there is a period of rapid cell

division. About day 10, the zygote attaches to the mother’s uterine wall.

• Embryo: the developing human organism from 2 – 8 weeks (2nd month). At this time organs begin to form and function (the heart beats, liver produces red cells, etc.), the umbilical cord forms, and arms and legs are beginning to form.

• Fetus: the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. At this time hands and feet are developing, at around the 6th month, organs such as the stomach have developed enough to allow a premature born fetus a chance of survival. The fetus is also responsive to the mother’s voice.

• Teratogens: toxic substances that can harm the embryo or fetus if ingested or contracted by the mother. Examples are alcohol, drugs, nicotine, HIV, AIDS, etc.

• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. Some characteristics include: disproportioned head, learning disabilities, emotional problems, etc.

• Habituation: a decrease in responsiveness with repeated stimulation. Ex. a baby no longer being excited by a toy.

• Schema: a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

• Assimilation: the process of absorbing new information into an existing schema.

• Accommodation: the process of adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new information.

• Object permanence: the understanding that objects and people continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Develops in the sensorimotor stage.

• Conservation: the understanding that two equal quantities remain equal even though their form or appearance is rearranged. Ex. understanding that your sandwich is the same size if it is cut into halves or quarters.

• Attachment: emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers & showing distress on separation

• Body contact : Harry & Margaret Harlow separated baby monkeys & raised them in individual cages - found that the babies became very stressed when they were separated from the blankets they were given

• The Stranger Situation: procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment developed Mary Ainsworth

• Secure attachment: infants who comfortably explore environments when caregiver is present, temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return

• Insecure attachment: clinging, anxious attachment, an avoidant attachment that resists closeness, disorganized attachment with no consistent behavior

• Authoritarian parenting style: impose rules & expect obedience (“My way or the highway”)

• Permissive: make few demands; set few limits; use little punishment

• Neglectful: neither demanding or responsive; careless & inattentive; do not seek a close relationship

• Authoritative: demanding & responsive; exert control by setting rules, but encourage open discussion (regarded as the healthiest parenting style)

• Self-concept: all our thoughts & feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question “Who am I?”

• Identity: our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing & integrating various roles

• Social identity: the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group membership

• Emerging adulthood: period from about age 18 to the mid-20s, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

• Well-being in Adulthood: Self-esteem & psychological well-being remain stable, positive emotions increase after midlife, older adults have smaller social networks, with fewer friendships & greater loneliness

• Greif: People do not grieve in predictable stages, can be harder to process when a death is sudden and unexpected

• Sex: biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, & intersex

• Gender: socially and culturally constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for different sexes

• Intersex: possessing male & female biological sexual characteristics at birth

• Puberty: 2 year period of rapid sexual maturation

• Role: set of expectations (norms) defining how people ought to behave based on their position in society

• Gender role: set of expected behaviors, attitudes, & traits for men & for women

• Sexual Aggression: any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

• Gender identity: a person’s inherent sense of being a man, woman, neither, or some combination

• Sexuality: our thoughts, feelings, & actions related to our physical attraction to others

• Language: our agreed-upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words, & the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

• Noam Chomsky: proposed that we are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), which allows us to learn any human language

• Phonemes: smallest distinctive unit of sound in a language

• Morphemes: smallest unit in a language that carries meaning

• Grammar: system of rules that enables us to communicate with & understand others

• Babbling stage: stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds (not mimicking language)

• One-word stage: stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

• Two-word stage: stage in speech development, beginning about age 2, during which a child speaks mostly in two-word sentences

• Critical periods:children who have a late start on learning language follow the normal sequence, but at a faster pace

• Linguistic determinism: Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think

• Linguistic relativism: idea that language influences the way we think

• Learning: process of acquiring through experience new & relatively enduring information or behaviors

• Associative learning: learning that certain events occur together; the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response & its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

• Stimulus: any event or situation that evokes a response

• Cognitive maps: mental representation of the layout of one’s environment; for example, after exploring a maze, rats act if they have learned a cognitive map of it

• Classical conditioning: an organism associates different stimulus that it does not control and responds automatically; one learns links to two or more stimulus and anticipates events

• Formula: UCS----->UCR, UCS + NS ----> UCR, CS------>CR

• Ivan Pavlov: Russian psychologist who was the first to put classical conditioning to practice, famous dog, bell, salivation conditioning experiment

• John B. Watson: Built upon the research of Pavlov with his own classical conditioning project in the 1920’s, performed the controversial “Little Albert” experiment which conditioned an infant to fear fuzzy white things

Classical Conditioning Components

• Acquisition : A stage of the conditioning processes and occurs when a certain response has been established (NS better before UCS, no more than two seconds between)

• Discrimination: The ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not with paired with an unconditioned stimulus 

• Generalization: Tendency to evoke similar responses after a response has been conditioned ( little albert experiment) 

• Spontaneous recovery: A sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished response

•  Extinction: When the CS no longer elicits the CR

Operant Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning: An organism associates its behavior (their environment) with their consequences

• Big Question: Do you want the behavior to continue?

  • Yes- Use reinforcement

  • No - Use punishment

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding something to reinforce a certain behavior

• Positive Punishment: Adding something to stop a certain behavior

• Negative Reinforcement: Taking away something to reinforce a certain behavior

• Negative Punishment: Taking away something to stop a certain behavior

• B.F. Skinner: One of the first and influential psychologists to test operant conditioning. Created the “Skinner Box” aka the Operant Chamber. Controversy.

• Fixed Ratio: depends on behavior itself, a certain number of behavior are necessary before reinforcement occurs

• Variable Ratio: reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses

• Fixed intervals: involves time, time must pass before reinforcement will occur

• Variable intervals: reinforced the first response after varying time intervals

• Continuous Reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs. Quickest acquisition, easiest to extinguish.

• Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement: reinforcing a response only part of the time. Slower acquisition, harder to extinguish.

• Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs closely to a behavior in time. Rat presses bar, rat gets food.

• Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. Weekly paycheck.

• Albert Bandura: Psychologist who studied observational learning, coined the term “Social Learning Theory,” conducted the Bobo Doll experiment

• Observational learning: learning that occurs when behavior is observed then modeled. Majority of learning

• Modeling: when behavior is observed then copied, limitations include desire to model, ability, attention, and retention

• Pro- social behavior: Behavior that is viewed as good, constructive, or helpful

• Anti-social behavior: Behavior that is viewed as bad, destructive, or unhelpful

• Mirror Neurons: Neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy