Comprehensive Chemistry Reference Guide: Periodic Trends, Nomenclature, Polyatomic Ions, Acids, Solubility, and Reactivity

Chemical Nomenclature and Molecular Prefixes

• Molecular prefixes used when naming binary molecular compounds:

  • Mono- : $1$ (typically used only when naming compounds containing Oxygen)

  • Di- : $2$

  • Tri- : $3$

  • Tetra- : $4$

  • Penta- : $5$

  • Hexa- : $6$

  • Hepta- : $7$

  • Octa- : $8$

  • Nona- : $9$

  • Deca- : $10$

Periodic Table Structure and Ion Charges

• Periodic Table Formatting Conventions:

  • Atomic Number: Positioned at the top of the element box.

  • Chemical Symbol: Positioned in the center of the element box.

  • Element Name: Positioned directly beneath the chemical symbol.

  • Atomic Weight / Mass Number: Positioned at the bottom of the element box (mass number of the most stable isotope is shown in parentheses where applicable).

  • Periods: Represented by rows $1$ through $7$.

  • Groups: Represented by columns $1$ through $18$.

  • Element Classifications: Metals, Nonmetals, and Noble Gases.

• Group Ion Charges:

  • Group $1$: $1+$ charge (Hydrogen marked as $1*$)

  • Group $2$: $2+$ charge

  • Group $13$: $3+$ charge

  • Group $14$: $4+/-$ charge

  • Group $15$: $3-$ charge

  • Group $16$: $2-$ charge

  • Group $17$: $1-$ charge

  • Group $18$: Noble Gases ($0$ charge)

• Specific Elemental Data across Periods:

  • Period $1$:

  • Hydrogen ($H$): Atomic number $1$, atomic weight $1.00794$

  • Helium ($He$): Atomic number $2$, atomic weight $4.0026$

  • Period $2$:

  • Lithium ($Li$): Atomic number $3$, atomic weight $6.941$

  • Beryllium ($Be$): Atomic number $4$, atomic weight $9.0122$

  • Boron ($B$): Atomic number $5$

  • Carbon ($C$): Atomic number $6$, atomic weight $12.011$

  • Nitrogen ($N$): Atomic number $7$, atomic weight $14.0067$

  • Oxygen ($O$): Atomic number $8$, atomic weight $15.9994$

  • Fluorine ($F$): Atomic number $9$, atomic weight $18.9984$

  • Neon ($Ne$): Atomic number $10$, atomic weight $20.183$

  • Period $3$:

  • Sodium ($Na$): Group $1$

  • Magnesium ($Mg$): Group $2$

  • Aluminium ($Al$): Group $13$

  • Silicon ($Si$): Group $14$

  • Phosphorus ($P$): Group $15$

  • Sulfur ($S$): Group $16$

  • Chlorine ($Cl$): Group $17$

  • Argon ($Ar$): Group $18$

  • Period $4$:

  • Potassium ($K$): Atomic weight $39.098$

  • Calcium ($Ca$): Atomic weight $40.08$

  • Scandium ($Sc$): Atomic number $21$, atomic weight $44.956$

  • Titanium ($Ti$): Atomic number $22$, atomic weight $47.87$

  • Vanadium ($V$): Atomic number $23$, atomic weight $50.942$

  • Chromium ($Cr$): Atomic number $24$, atomic weight $51.996$

  • Manganese ($Mn$): Atomic number $25$, atomic weight $54.9380$

  • Iron ($Fe$): Atomic number $26$, atomic weight $55.845$

  • Cobalt ($Co$): Atomic number $27$, atomic weight $58.9332$

  • Nickel ($Ni$): Atomic number $28$, atomic weight $58.69$

  • Copper ($Cu$): Atomic number $29$, atomic weight $63.546$

  • Zinc ($Zn$): Atomic number $30$, atomic weight $65.39$

  • Gallium ($Ga$): Atomic weight $69.72$

  • Germanium ($Ge$): Atomic weight $72.61$

  • Arsenic ($As$): Atomic weight $74.9216$

  • Selenium ($Se$): Atomic weight $78.96$

  • Bromine ($Br$): Atomic weight $79.904$

  • Krypton ($Kr$): Atomic weight $83.80$

  • Period $5$:

  • Rubidium ($Rb$), Strontium ($Sr$), Yttrium ($Y$), Zirconium ($Zr$), Niobium ($Nb$), Molybdenum ($Mo$), Technetium ($Tc$), Ruthenium ($Ru$), Rhodium ($Rh$), Palladium ($Pd$), Silver ($Ag$), Cadmium ($Cd$), Indium ($In$), Tin ($Sn$), Antimony ($Sb$), Tellurium ($Te$), Iodine ($I$), Xenon ($Xe$)

  • Period $6$:

  • Cesium ($Cs$), Barium ($Ba$), Lanthanides ($57$ to $71$), Hafnium ($Hf$), Tantalum ($Ta$), Tungsten ($W$), Rhenium ($Re$), Osmium ($Os$) (atomic weight $192.2$), Iridium ($Ir$), Platinum ($Pt$) (atomic weight $195.08$), Gold ($Au$) (atomic weight $196.967$), Mercury ($Hg$) (atomic weight $200.59$), Thallium ($Tl$) (atomic weight $204.38$), Lead ($Pb$) (atomic weight $207.2$), Bismuth ($Bi$) (atomic weight $208.98$), Polonium ($Po$) (mass number $(210)$), Astatine ($At$) (mass number $(210)$), Radon ($Rn$) (mass number $(222)$)

  • Period $7$:

  • Francium ($Fr$) (mass number $(223)$), Radium ($Ra$) (mass number $(226)$), Actinides ($89$ to $103$), Rutherfordium ($Rf$), Dubnium ($Db$), Seaborgium ($Sg$), Bohrium ($Bh$), Hassium ($Hs$), Meitnerium ($Mt$), Darmstadtium ($Ds$), Roentgenium ($Rg$)

  • Lanthanides Series (Atomic numbers $57$ through $71$):

  • Lanthanum ($La$): Atomic number $57$, atomic weight $138.91$

  • Cerium ($Ce$): Atomic number $58$, atomic weight $140.12$

  • Praseodymium ($Pr$): Atomic number $59$, atomic weight $140.908$

  • Neodymium ($Nd$): Atomic number $60$, atomic weight $144.24$

  • Promethium ($Pm$): Atomic number $61$, mass number $(145)$

  • Samarium ($Sm$): Atomic number $62$

  • Europium ($Eu$): Atomic number $63$

  • Gadolinium ($Gd$): Atomic number $64$

  • Terbium ($Tb$): Atomic number $65$

  • Dysprosium ($Dy$): Atomic number $66$

  • Holmium ($Ho$): Atomic number $67$

  • Erbium ($Er$): Atomic number $68$

  • Thulium ($Tm$): Atomic number $69$

  • Ytterbium ($Yb$): Atomic number $70$

  • Lutetium ($Lu$): Atomic number $71$

  • Actinides Series (Atomic numbers $89$ through $103$):

  • Actinium ($Ac$): Atomic number $89$

  • Thorium ($Th$): Atomic number $90$

  • Protactinium ($Pa$): Atomic number $91$

  • Uranium ($U$): Atomic number $92$

  • Neptunium ($Np$): Atomic number $93$, mass number $(237)$

  • Plutonium ($Pu$): Atomic number $94$, mass number $(244)$

  • Americium ($Am$): Atomic number $95$, mass number $(243)$

  • Curium ($Cm$): Atomic number $96$, mass number $(247)$

  • Berkelium ($Bk$): Atomic number $97$, mass number $(247)$

  • Californium ($Cf$): Atomic number $98$, mass number $(251)$

  • Einsteinium ($Es$): Atomic number $99$, mass number $(252)$

  • Fermium ($Fm$): Atomic number $100$, mass number $(257)$

  • Mendelevium ($Md$): Atomic number $101$, mass number $(258)$

  • Nobelium ($No$): Atomic number $102$, mass number $(259)$

  • Lawrencium ($Lr$): Atomic number $103$, mass number $(262)$

Transition Metals and Multivalent Cations

• Multivalent Metals (Charges and Roman numeral designations):

  • Copper: $1+$ or $2+$ (Roman numerals: I, II)

  • Mercury: $1+$ or $2+$ (Roman numerals: I, II)

  • Gold: $1+$ or $3+$ (Roman numerals: I, III)

  • Iron: $2+$ or $3+$ (Roman numerals: II, III)

  • Cobalt: $2+$ or $3+$ (Roman numerals: II, III)

  • Nickel: $2+$ or $3+$ (Roman numerals: II, III)

  • Chromium: $2+$ or $3+$ (Roman numerals: II, III)

  • Manganese: $2+$ or $3+$ (Roman numerals: II, III)

  • Lead: $2+$ or $4+$ (Roman numerals: II, IV)

  • Tin: $2+$ or $4+$ (Roman numerals: II, IV)

  • Platinum: $2+$ or $4+$ (Roman numerals: II, IV)

• Fixed-Charge Transition Metals:

  • Silver: $1+$

  • Zinc: $2+$

  • Cadmium: $2+$

  • Rhodium: $3+$

Common Polyatomic Ions

• Polyatomic Cation:

  • Ammonium: $(NH_4)^+$ (or $(NH_4)^{1+}$), the only polyatomic ion acting as a cation.

• Polyatomic Anions with $1-$ Charge:

  • Bicarbonate (Hydrogen Carbonate): $(HCO_3)^-$

  • Chlorate: $(ClO_3)^-$

  • Nitrate: $(NO_3)^-$

  • Acetate: $(C_2H_3O_2)^-$ or $(CH_3COO)^-$

  • Cyanate: $(OCN)^-$

  • Permanganate: $(MnO_4)^-$

  • Cyanide: $(CN)^-$

  • Hydroxide: $(OH)^-$

• Polyatomic Anions with $2-$ Charge:

  • Carbonate: $(CO_3)^{2-}$

  • Chromate: $(CrO_4)^{2-}$

  • Oxalate: $(C_2O_4)^{2-}$

  • Sulfate: $(SO_4)^{2-}$

• Polyatomic Anion with $3-$ Charge:

  • Phosphate: $(PO_4)^{3-}$

Common Acids and Diatomic Molecules

• Common Acids:

  • Hydrochloric Acid: $HCl$

  • Hydrosulfuric Acid: $H_2S$

  • Sulfuric Acid: $H_2SO_4$

  • Phosphoric Acid: $H_3PO_4$

  • Nitric Acid: $HNO_3$

  • Carbonic Acid: $H_2CO_3$

  • Acetic Acid (Vinegar): $HC_2H_3O_2$ or $CH_3COOH$

• Diatomic Molecules:

  • Iodine: $I_2$

  • Nitrogen: $N_2$

  • Hydrogen: $H_2$

  • Chlorine: $Cl_2$

  • Bromine: $Br_2$

  • Oxygen: $O_2$

  • Fluorine: $F_2$

Electronegativity Trends and Values

• Electronegativity Scale Categorizations:

  • Difference range $0.0 - 0.5$: Nonpolar covalent bond

  • Difference range $0.6 - 1.9$: Polar covalent bond

  • Difference range $2.0+$: Ionic bond

• Electronegativity Values by Element:

  • Group $1$: Hydrogen ($H$) = $2.1$, Lithium ($Li$) = $1.0$, Sodium ($Na$) = $0.9$, Potassium ($K$) = $0.8$, Rubidium ($Rb$) = $0.8$, Cesium ($Cs$) = $0.8$, Francium ($Fr$) = $0.7$

  • Group $2$: Beryllium ($Be$) = $1.5$, Magnesium ($Mg$) = $1.2$, Calcium ($Ca$) = $1.0$, Strontium ($Sr$) = $1.0$, Barium ($Ba$) = $0.9$, Radium ($Ra$) = $0.9$

  • Group $3$: Scandium ($Sc$) = $1.3$, Yttrium ($Y$) = $1.2$, Lanthanum ($La$) = $1.1$, Actinium ($Ac$) = $1.1$

  • Group $4$: Titanium ($Ti$) = $1.4$, Zirconium ($Zr$) = $1.3$, Hafnium ($Hf$) = $1.3$

  • Group $5$: Vanadium ($V$) = $1.5$, Niobium ($Nb$) = $1.6$, Tantalum ($Ta$) = $1.5$

  • Group $6$: Chromium ($Cr$) = $1.6$, Molybdenum ($Mo$) = $1.8$, Tungsten ($W$) = $1.7$

  • Group $7$: Manganese ($Mn$) = $1.5$, Technetium ($Tc$) = $1.9$, Rhenium ($Re$) = $1.9$

  • Group $8$: Iron ($Fe$) = $1.8$, Ruthenium ($Ru$) = $2.2$, Osmium ($Os$) = $2.2$

  • Group $9$: Cobalt ($Co$) = $1.9$, Rhodium ($Rh$) = $2.2$, Iridium ($Ir$) = $2.2$

  • Group $10$: Nickel ($Ni$) = $1.9$, Palladium ($Pd$) = $2.2$, Platinum ($Pt$) = $2.2$

  • Group $11$: Copper ($Cu$) = $1.9$, Silver ($Ag$) = $1.9$, Gold ($Au$) = $2.4$

  • Group $12$: Zinc ($Zn$) = $1.6$, Cadmium ($Cd$) = $1.7$, Mercury ($Hg$) = $1.9$

  • Group $13$: Boron ($B$) = $2.0$, Aluminium ($Al$) = $1.5$, Gallium ($Ga$) = $1.6$, Indium ($In$) = $1.7$, Thallium ($Tl$) = $1.8$

  • Group $14$: Carbon ($C$) = $2.5$, Silicon ($Si$) = $1.8$, Germanium ($Ge$) = $1.8$, Tin ($Sn$) = $1.8$, Lead ($Pb$) = $1.8$

  • Group $15$: Nitrogen ($N$) = $3.0$, Phosphorus ($P$) = $2.1$, Arsenic ($As$) = $2.0$, Antimony ($Sb$) = $1.9$, Bismuth ($Bi$) = $1.9$

  • Group $16$: Oxygen ($O$) = $3.5$, Sulfur ($S$) = $2.5$, Selenium ($Se$) = $2.4$, Tellurium ($Te$) = $2.1$, Polonium ($Po$) = $2.0$

  • Group $17$: Fluorine ($F$) = $4.0$, Chlorine ($Cl$) = $3.0$, Bromine ($Br$) = $2.8$, Iodine ($I$) = $2.5$, Astatine ($At$) = $2.2$

Aqueous Solubility Rules and Exceptions

• Soluble Ions and Exceptions:

  • Nitrate ($NO_3^-$): Soluble; no exceptions.

  • Perchlorate ($ClO_4^-$): Soluble; no exceptions.

  • Chloride ($Cl^-$): Soluble; exceptions are $Ag^+$, $Hg_2^{2+}$, and $Pb^{2+}$.

  • Iodide ($I^-$): Soluble; exceptions are $Ag^+$, $Hg_2^{2+}$, and $Pb^{2+}$.

  • Sulfate ($SO_4^{2-}$): Soluble; exceptions are $Ca^{2+}$, $Ba^{2+}$, $Sr^{2+}$, $Hg_2^{2+}$, $Pb^{2+}$, and $Ag^+$.

  • Sodium ($Na^+$): Soluble; no exceptions.

  • Ammonium ($NH_4^+$): Soluble; no exceptions.

  • Potassium ($K^+$): Soluble; no exceptions.

• Insoluble Ions and Exceptions:

  • Carbonate ($CO_3^{2-}$): Insoluble; exceptions are Group IA (Group $1$) cations and $NH_4^+$.

  • Phosphate ($PO_4^{3-}$): Insoluble; exceptions are Group IA (Group $1$) cations and $NH_4^+$.

  • Hydroxide ($OH^-$): Insoluble; exceptions are Group IA cations, $Ba^{2+}$, $Sr^{2+}$, and $Ca^{2+}$ ($Ca^{2+}$ is slightly soluble).

  • Sulfide ($S^{2-}$): Insoluble; exceptions are Group IA cations, Group IIA cations, and $NH_4^+$.

Chemical Reactivity Series and Extraction Methods

• Reactivity Series Order (From Most Reactive to Least Reactive):

  1. Potassium ($K$) - Very reactive

  2. Sodium ($Na$)

  3. Lithium ($Li$)

  4. Calcium ($Ca$)

  5. Magnesium ($Mg$)

  6. Aluminium ($Al$)

  7. Carbon ($C$)

  8. Zinc ($Zn$)

  9. Iron ($Fe$)

  10. Tin ($Sn$)

  11. Lead ($Pb$)

  12. Hydrogen ($H$)

  13. Copper ($Cu$)

  14. Mercury ($Hg$)

  15. Silver ($Ag$)

  16. Gold ($Au$) - Very unreactive

• Reactivity Rules and Reactions:

  • Reaction with Water: Potassium ($K$), Sodium ($Na$), Lithium ($Li$), and Calcium ($Ca$) react with water.

  • Reaction with Acids:

  • Metals above Hydrogen ($K$, $Na$, $Li$, $Ca$, $Mg$, $Al$, $C$, $Zn$, $Fe$, $Sn$, $Pb$) react with acids, displacing hydrogen with increasing vigour as reactivity increases.

  • Metals below Hydrogen ($Cu$, $Ag$, $Au$) do not react with acids.

  • Reaction with Oxygen: Metals from Potassium ($K$) down through Silver ($Ag$) react with oxygen.

  • Displacement Reactions: Higher (more reactive) metals displace lower (less reactive) metals from their compounds.

• Extraction Methods:

  • Metals Positioned Above Carbon ($K$, $Na$, $Ca$, $Mg$, $Al$): Can only be extracted by electrolysis (expensive process).

  • Metals Positioned Below Carbon ($Zn$, $Fe$, $Pb$, $Cu$): Metal oxides can be reduced using carbon or carbon monoxide (cheap process).