Unit 4 Full Guide

Unit 4 Chapter 1

Key Terms to Know

• State – A politically recognized territory with sovereignty.

• Nation – A cultural group with shared identity.

• Sovereignty – The ability of a state to govern itself.

• Nation-State – A state with one dominant national identity.

• Geometric Boundary – Straight-line political border.

• Superimposed Boundary – Borders created by external forces.

• Federal vs. Unitary State – Distribution of power within governments.

• Geopolitics – The study of how geography influences politics.

1. What is Political Geography?

A. Definition

• Political Geography is the study of how political processes and spatial structures interact. It examines the influence of geography on political systems and vice versa.

B. Key Focus Areas

1. Territoriality – The connection of people, culture, and economic systems to a specific land.

2. Boundaries & Borders – How political borders are drawn and their impact.

3. Sovereignty & Governance – How states control land and resources.

4. Geopolitics – How geography influences global power dynamics.

2. The Concept of the State & Nation

A. Definitions

• State (Country) – A political unit with a defined territory, permanent population, government, and sovereignty.

• Nation – A group of people with a shared culture, language, history, and identity (e.g., the Kurds, Basques).

• Nation-State – A state with a population that largely shares a single national identity (e.g., Japan, Iceland).

• Multinational State – A state with multiple ethnic groups who recognize different national identities (e.g., Canada, Russia).

• Stateless Nation – A nation without an official state (e.g., Palestinians, Kurds).

3. Types of Political Boundaries

A. Types of Borders

4. Types of Political Systems & Government Structures

A. Levels of Government

1. Unitary State – A centralized government with little regional autonomy (e.g., France, China).

2. Federal State – Power is shared between central and regional governments (e.g., U.S., Canada, Germany).

3. Confederation – A loose alliance of states with limited central authority (e.g., Switzerland).

B. Forms of Governance

• Democracy – Citizens have political power (e.g., U.S., UK).

• Autocracy – Ruled by a single leader or small group (e.g., North Korea).

• Theocracy – Religious leaders control the government (e.g., Iran).

5. Geopolitics & Political Power

A. Geopolitical Theories

1. Heartland Theory (Mackinder) – Controlling Eurasia is key to world power.

2. Rimland Theory (Spykman) – Controlling coastal regions around Eurasia is key to global power.

B. Supranational Organizations

• Groups of states cooperating for political, economic, or military reasons.

  • United Nations (UN) – Promotes global peace and cooperation.

  • European Union (EU) – Economic and political alliance of European states.

  • North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) – Military alliance for mutual defense.

Unit 4 Chapters 2-3

Key Terms to Know

• State Formation – The creation of a political entity with sovereignty.

• Devolution – Transfer of power to regional governments.

• Gerrymandering – Manipulating district boundaries for political advantage.

• Territoriality – The connection of people to a specific land.

• Compact State – A small, centralized state.

• Elongated State – A long and narrow state.

• Hard Power vs. Soft Power – Military vs. cultural influence.

1. Political Processes

A. Definition

Political processes refer to the ways in which governments, political institutions, and citizens interact to create policies, establish control, and maintain territorial integrity.

B. Key Political Processes

1. State Formation – The development of a political entity with sovereignty.

   • Example: The unification of Germany in 1871.

2. Devolution – The transfer of power from a central government to regional governments.

   • Example: Scotland gaining its own parliament within the UK.

3. Gerrymandering – The manipulation of electoral boundaries to favor a political party.

   • Example: Drawing district lines to concentrate opposition votes.

4. Redistricting – The redrawing of electoral district boundaries based on population changes.

   • Occurs after a census (e.g., U.S. congressional districts).

2. Political Power & Territoriality

A. Political Power

Political power refers to the ability of a government, leader, or group to influence decisions, control land, and shape international relations.

1. Types of Political Power

2. Factors Affecting Political Power

• Economic Strength – Wealthier states often have greater global influence.

• Military Strength – Countries with strong militaries project power globally.

• Alliances & Diplomacy – Membership in international organizations enhances influence.

B. Territoriality

Territoriality is the connection of people, culture, and economic systems to a specific land. It involves the desire to control and defend a space.

1. Examples of Territoriality

• Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) – Countries control resources 200 nautical miles from their coast.

• Disputed Territories – Conflicts arise over land claims (e.g., Israel-Palestine).

• Geopolitical Influence – Nations exert control over strategic locations (e.g., Russia in Crimea).

2. Territorial Morphology (Shapes of States)

Unit 4 Chapters 4-6

Key Terms to Know

• Sovereignty – The ability of a state to govern itself.

• Geometric Boundary – A boundary drawn in a straight line, often using latitude/longitude.

• Superimposed Boundary – A boundary placed by outside forces with little regard for local cultures.

• Relic Boundary – A boundary that no longer functions but still affects the landscape.

• Boundary Dispute – A disagreement over a political border.

• Gerrymandering – Manipulating electoral boundaries for political gain.

• Redistricting – Redrawing electoral districts based on population shifts.

1. Defining Political Boundaries

A. What are Political Boundaries?

• Political boundaries are dividing lines that separate the territories of different political entities, such as states, countries, or administrative regions.

• They define sovereignty, control over resources, and governance.

B. Types of Political Boundaries

2. The Function of Political Boundaries

A. Why Do Boundaries Exist?

Political boundaries serve several functions, including:

1. Defining Sovereignty – Establish the limits of a government’s control.

2. Preventing Conflict – Set legal divisions between different political entities.

3. Regulating Movement – Control immigration, trade, and transportation.

4. Managing Resources – Assign ownership of natural resources (e.g., Exclusive Economic Zones - EEZs).

B. Types of Boundary Disputes

3. Internal Boundaries

A. What are Internal Boundaries?

• Internal boundaries divide regions within a state.

• They define administrative areas, govern regional autonomy, and influence local policies.

B. Types of Internal Boundaries

C. Gerrymandering & Redistricting

• Gerrymandering – Manipulating electoral district boundaries to benefit a political party.

• Redistricting – Adjusting legislative districts based on population changes (usually after a census).

Unit 4 Chapter 7

Key Terms to Know

• Unitary System – Centralized governance with minimal regional autonomy.

• Federal System – Shared power between central and regional governments.

• Confederal System – A decentralized system where regional governments hold significant power.

• Authoritarianism – A system of governance where power is concentrated in one or a small group of leaders.

• Democracy – A system where citizens have the power to elect leaders and influence decisions.

• Theocracy – Religious leadership governs based on religious laws.

• Monarchy – A political system ruled by a king, queen, or emperor.

1. Definition of Governance

Governance refers to the system of rules, practices, and institutions through which authority is exercised. Different states adopt various forms of governance based on how power is distributed, how decisions are made, and who holds authority.

2. Types of Governance Systems

A. Unitary System

• Definition: A centralized form of governance where most of the political power is held by the central government.

• Key Features:

  • Centralized control over local regions or provinces.

  • Limited autonomy for regional authorities.

  • Uniform policies and laws across the entire state.

• Examples:

  • France: The central government holds significant control over the regions and provinces.

  • China: Provincial governments have limited powers, and decisions are largely made by the central government in Beijing.

B. Federal System

• Definition: A system of governance in which political power is shared between a central government and regional governments (e.g., states, provinces).

• Key Features:

  • Power is divided between national and regional governments.

  • Regional governments have authority over certain areas (e.g., education, local law enforcement).

  • Constitution or legal framework usually governs the distribution of powers.

• Examples:

  • United States: Powers are divided between the federal government and state governments (e.g., education, healthcare, taxation).

  • Germany: The country is divided into federal states (Länder), each with its own constitution and government.

C. Confederal System

• Definition: A decentralized form of governance in which the central government has limited powers, and most authority resides in regional governments or states.

• Key Features:

  • Regional governments hold significant power and may choose to delegate specific responsibilities to the central government.

  • The central government’s role is usually limited to defense, foreign relations, and coordination between states.

• Examples:

  • European Union (EU): Although not a full confederation, it shares some characteristics with a confederal system where countries maintain sovereignty but cooperate on certain issues.

  • Articles of Confederation (U.S. - pre-1787): The early governance structure of the U.S. before the creation of the Constitution, which was very weak and decentralized.

3. Other Forms of Governance

A. Authoritarian Regimes

• Definition: A political system where one leader or a small group holds significant power, often without constitutional limits or public input.

• Key Features:

  • Limited political freedoms and restrictions on opposition.

  • Control over many aspects of public and private life.

  • Power is centralized in the hands of one leader or small group.

• Examples:

  • North Korea: A dictatorship led by a single family, with a high degree of control over the people’s lives.

  • Saudi Arabia: An absolute monarchy where power rests primarily with the royal family.

B. Democracy

• Definition: A system of governance in which political power is derived from the people, who elect leaders and representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

• Key Features:

  1. Free and fair elections where leaders are chosen by the people.

  2. Pluralism and the right of individuals and groups to express their opinions.

  3. Rule of law where the legal system is impartial and applies equally to all citizens.

• Types:

  1. Direct Democracy: Citizens vote on all major decisions and laws.

     • Example: Ancient Athens (historically).

  2. Representative Democracy: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

     • Example: United States, India, United Kingdom.

C. Theocracy

• Definition: A form of governance where religious leaders hold political power and laws are based on religious principles.

• Key Features:

  • Religious leaders or institutions have significant influence over political decisions.

  • Laws and policies are often based on religious doctrines.

  • Religious authority governs both public and private life.

• Examples:

  • Iran: A theocratic system where the Supreme Leader, a religious figure, holds significant political power.

  • Vatican City: A city-state governed by the Pope, the religious leader of the Catholic Church.

D. Monarchy

• Definition: A form of governance where a single individual (usually a king, queen, or emperor) holds political power.

• Key Features:

  1. Hereditary leadership, passed down through a royal family.

  2. Power may be absolute (absolute monarchy) or ceremonial (constitutional monarchy).

• Types:

  1. Absolute Monarchy: The monarch has almost complete power and authority.

     • Example: Saudi Arabia, where the king holds significant power.

  2. Constitutional Monarchy: The monarch’s powers are limited by a constitution or laws, and political power is largely vested in elected officials.

     • Example: United Kingdom, where the monarch is a ceremonial figurehead, and the government is run by elected officials.

4. Comparison of Governance Forms

Unit 4 Chapters 8-9

Key Terms to Know

• Devolution – The transfer of power from a central government to regional or local governments.

• Sovereignty – The authority of a state to govern itself and make decisions within its borders.

• Ethnic Autonomy – The right of ethnic groups to govern themselves within a larger state.

• Supranational Organizations – International organizations where member states cede some of their sovereignty (e.g., EU, UN).

• Irredentism – The desire to reclaim territory that is believed to belong to the state based on historical or ethnic grounds.

• Globalization – The interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and politics across the world.

• Territorial Integrity – The principle that borders and territorial boundaries should not be altered by external forces.

1. Defining Devolutionary Factors

A. What is Devolution?

• Devolution is the process by which power and authority are transferred from a central government to lower levels of government, such as regional or local governments.

• It allows for more regional autonomy and addresses specific needs or demands from local populations.

• While it doesn’t necessarily mean full independence, it often leads to greater local control over political, economic, and cultural matters.

B. Factors Leading to Devolution

1. Ethnic, Religious, and Cultural Differences

   • Distinct cultural or ethnic groups may seek autonomy to preserve their identity and practices.

   • Example: The Basque region in Spain seeking greater autonomy due to cultural and linguistic differences.

2. Geographic Factors

   • Regions that are geographically isolated may push for devolution to address local needs.

   • Example: The Scottish Highlands in the UK, which have historically pushed for more local control due to their distance from London.

3. Economic Factors

   • Economically wealthier regions may feel that they contribute more to the national economy and demand more control over their resources.

   • Example: Catalonia in Spain, which is one of the wealthiest regions, seeking more control over its economic resources.

4. Political Factors

   • Political movements or parties advocating for regional autonomy can pressure central governments to devolve power.

   • Example: Quebec in Canada, where the political movement for independence and autonomy has been strong due to cultural and linguistic differences.

5. Historical Reasons

   • Some regions have historically operated with a degree of autonomy and may seek to restore or strengthen that control.

   • Example: Hawaii in the U.S., which has a unique history of sovereignty before becoming a state.

2. Challenges to Sovereignty

A. What is Sovereignty?

• Sovereignty refers to the authority of a state to govern itself and make decisions free from external control. It involves territorial integrity, control over natural resources, and the ability to create and enforce laws within its borders.

B. Challenges to Sovereignty

1. Supranational Organizations

   • States may face a loss of sovereignty when they join international organizations that have decision-making power over certain matters (e.g., trade, security).

   • Example: European Union (EU) member states have ceded some of their sovereignty to the EU institutions, particularly in areas like trade regulations and monetary policy.

2. Globalization

   • Globalization leads to interconnected economies and societies, which can limit a state’s ability to independently control its economy and culture.

   • Example: Multinational corporations may influence policy decisions more than national governments.

3. Territorial Disputes

   • Disagreements over borders or regions claimed by multiple states can lead to challenges to sovereignty.

   • Example: The ongoing conflict between Israel and Palestine challenges the sovereignty of both states over contested territories.

4. Irredentism

   • Irredentism refers to the desire of a state to reclaim territories that are perceived as historically or ethnically part of its nation.

   • Example: Russia’s annexation of Crimea from Ukraine in 2014 was driven by irredentist desires, as it was seen as historically part of Russia.

5. Ethnic or Regional Movements

   • Local groups within a state may challenge national sovereignty by pushing for independence or autonomy.

   • Example: Scotland’s independence referendum and Catalonia's push for independence from Spain challenge the sovereignty of the UK and Spain, respectively.

6. Foreign Military Intervention

   • A state’s sovereignty can be challenged by foreign intervention, either for humanitarian reasons, to influence political outcomes, or during conflict.

   • Example: The NATO intervention in Libya (2011) challenged the sovereignty of the Libyan state.

Unit 4 Chapter 10

Key Terms to Know

• Centrifugal Forces – Factors that divide or destabilize a state or region, leading to fragmentation.

• Centripetal Forces – Factors that unite or stabilize a state, promoting cohesion and national unity.

• Secession – The action of formally withdrawing from a state or nation to form a new independent entity.

• Regionalism – The tendency of regions to seek more power or independence from the central government.

• National Identity – The shared sense of belonging and pride that binds people together within a state.

1. Centrifugal Forces and Their Consequences

A. Causes of Centrifugal Forces

1. Ethnic, Religious, or Linguistic Diversity

   • When a state contains multiple ethnic, religious, or linguistic groups with competing interests, centrifugal forces may emerge.

   • Example: The Balkan region of Europe, where ethnic divisions led to instability and conflict.

2. Economic Inequality

   • If certain regions of a state are significantly wealthier or poorer than others, economic disparity can create tensions.

   • Example: Catalonia’s push for independence from Spain, partly due to economic grievances.

3. Regionalism

   • When certain regions seek more political autonomy, they may push for independence or greater control over local issues.

   • Example: Scotland pushing for greater autonomy or independence from the United Kingdom.

4. Political Corruption or Inefficiency

   • A government perceived as corrupt or ineffective can undermine national unity and increase regional discontent.

   • Example: Nigeria has experienced regional tensions due to political instability and corruption.

5. Territorial Disputes

   • Conflicts over border regions or territories can lead to instability and fragmentation.

   • Example: The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is partly driven by competing territorial claims.

B. Consequences of Centrifugal Forces

1. Civil War and Conflict

   • The breakdown of unity often leads to violent conflict, as different groups fight for control or independence.

   • Example: The Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s resulted from ethnic centrifugal forces.

2. Secession and Fragmentation

   • Groups or regions may seek independence, leading to the breakup of states.

   • Example: The secession of South Sudan from Sudan in 2011.

3. Political Instability

   • Increased political discontent can lead to instability, weak governance, and even regime change.

   • Example: Catalonia's independence referendum causing political unrest in Spain.

4. Decline in National Identity

   • People may begin to identify more with their regional or ethnic group than with the nation-state as a whole.

   • Example: Quebec’s separatist movement in Canada, where many Quebecers identified more with French-speaking culture than Canadian nationalism.

2. Centripetal Forces and Their Consequences

A. Causes of Centripetal Forces

1. Shared National Identity

   • A strong, unifying national identity that all citizens can rally behind promotes stability and cohesion.

   • Example: The United States during times of crisis, such as the post-9/11 period, when national unity strengthened.

2. National Symbols and Rituals

   • Flags, anthems, holidays, and national ceremonies can promote unity and pride within a state.

   • Example: India's independence day celebrations reinforce national identity and pride.

3. Strong, Effective Governance

   • A centralized government that provides essential services and protects the welfare of citizens can increase national unity.

   • Example: The New Deal policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt in the U.S. helped unify the country during the Great Depression.

4. Economic Cooperation

   • Economic interdependence and shared resources can bind regions together, fostering cooperation and unity.

   • Example: The European Union promoting economic cooperation among European nations to maintain stability.

5. Military Unity

   • A unified military force that defends the state from external threats can encourage a sense of collective responsibility and unity.

   • Example: Israel’s military service encourages cohesion among Israeli citizens, regardless of ethnic or religious background.

B. Consequences of Centripetal Forces

1. Increased National Unity

   • The more a state can unite its citizens around common goals, identities, or symbols, the stronger the national cohesion.

   • Example: The unification of Germany after the fall of the Berlin Wall was driven by centripetal forces of national identity.

2. Stability and Peace

   • States that experience strong centripetal forces tend to maintain stability and avoid conflicts.

   • Example: Switzerland, with its policy of neutrality and effective governance, enjoys internal stability.

3. Economic Growth and Development

   • A cohesive society is more likely to invest in infrastructure, education, and social welfare, leading to overall prosperity.

   • Example: Singapore’s focus on national unity and efficient governance has driven its economic success.

4. Strengthened Political Institutions

   • Centripetal forces encourage the functioning of stable political institutions that uphold the rule of law and protect the state’s integrity.

   • Example: The United States government remains relatively stable, with well-established democratic institutions despite challenges.