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AP Language: Argumentation, Refutations & Writing

  • The foundations of effective arguments include:

    • Careful, respectful reading and writing regarding different viewpoints.

    • Consider a range of ideas.

    • Create a claim, gather evidence, and take into account the organization.

    • Develop a clear understanding of beliefs.

  • An argument is persuasive when it persuades and is coherent by connecting your claim to your conclusion.

  • Formal essay/writing structure:

    • Intro: what I believe.

    • The first reason why I believe what I do.

    • Second reason why

    • Some things you believe, but have some info that refutes your beliefs (this strengthens your argument).

    • Conclusion: wraps up the task at hand and supports why I am right.

  • Justification is the recognition that a subject lends itself to legitimate differences of opinion.

    • Centers upon a controversial topic or an opinion that is worthy of defending.

  • Claims of facts:

    • Asserts something is true or untrue

    • Based upon factual evidence

      • Facts are arguable when they are questioned, raise awareness, or change beliefs.

  • Claims of values:

    • Argues if something is good or bad.

      • Must be arguable

    • Can be personal judgments or objective evaluations

    • Establish criteria or standards

  • Claims of policy:

    • Propose change/reform

    • Propose building blocks to change.

  • Warrants in writing are assumptions that lead writers to hold the opinions they present.

    • Claim —> reason —> warrant

  • To persuade the reader, consider the following:

    • Your audience and tone/attitude

    • What you seek to accomplish

    • What are your contributions to the debate

    • Have you questioned your own assumptions

  • To effectively argue, you must discuss a topic that will elicit two or more differing opinions.

    • Allows for a deep, complex debate.

  • Some strategies to take a stand/develop an effective claim are to:

    • list some preliminary reasons for your response

    • gather and explore information from different sources

    • write informally about the issue to start, then formalize it by considering your thoughts and what it provokes

    • think about possible objections to your argument/position

  • A good claim considers the purpose of your argument.

  • Some unfair emotional appeals in argumentations include:

    • Transferring: the association of a position with a famous person.

    • Ad Hominem (against the man): the act of discrediting someone with the goal of discrediting their claim.

    • Glittering Generalizations: a strategy that deliberately arouses an audience’s emotions about institutions or ideas.

    • Bandwagon: when the writer generalizes falsely that the crowd/majority is always correct.

  • Some errors in logical reasoning in argumentations are:

    • Hasty Generalizations: a conclusion based on insufficient, untrue evidence.

    • Broad Generalizations: employing words such as “all,” “never,” or “always” to state something absolutely.

    • Oversimplification: reducing alternatives (either/or, no choice, no harm or cost, one solution, etc.).

    • Begging the Question: a claim with no supporting evidence.

    • False Cause and Effect: tries to create a causal relationship without proper evidence.

  • The steps to writing powerful arguments can be deduced to:

    1. Prewriting: to whom; what is your attitude; what is your tone; what do you want to accomplish; have you questioned; what have you/will you add to the debate

    2. Identify an issue: subject brings about two or more differing viewpoints; choose your side; what is your position and how can you develop it through logic and evidence

    3. Take a stand/clarify a claim: limit, control, clarify argument; list reasons and evidence; determine if you have enough material for a good argument; gather information and possible emotional responses; draft; avoid unfair emotional appeals and errors in reasoning.

    4. Analyze evidence: how much does the audience know; what do they expect; will they be friendly, hostile, or neural towards your argument; what are their opinions and values

    5. Establish your tone: your attitude towards the subject; tone stems from your diction, syntax, and figurative language

    6. Refutation: recognize and deal with arguments of opponents; your argument will be stronger if you refute because you strengthen your own position.

  • Look for evidence that HELPS ME:

    • H: History

    • E: current Events

    • L: Literature and the arts

    • P: Personal experience

    • S: Science and technology

    • M: Money

    • E: Ethics

  • The First Triad: three points of the rhetorical triangle.

    • You: the writer/speaker.

    • What: the subject/topic.

    • Who: your audience.

  • The Second Triad: three sides of the rhetorical triangle.

    • Thesis/main point.

    • How to appeal and garner attention.

    • Context: time, place, occasion.

  • The Third Triad: three layers of the rhetorical triangle.

    • Tone: your voice/attitude towards your subject.

    • Rhetorical modes: used for structure.

    • Rhetorical devices: create tone.

  • Your purpose is linked to your rhetorical mode as it creates a common ground with your audience.

    • Consider what they already know, what do you already know about their opinions, and do they agree or disagree with you.

  • Your tone reflects your attitude to the subject or occasion.

    • It is appropriate to the person, audience, and situation

    • A secondary audience must be considered

    • Created through diction, syntax, and rhetorical devices

    • Needs to inspire trust by conveying reasonable, well-informed, and fair strategies.

      • Fairness = acknowledgment.

  • Freewriting and brainstorming are the essential processes to generate ideas without censoring your thoughts.

    • Just write, don’t make it perfect.