Nationalism and Political Identities in Asia, Africa, and Latin America

Indian National Congress (INC) - Founded in 1885 to promote self-rule in India - Initially received support from both Hindus and Muslims - Original stance favored collaboration with British rule - Post World War I, the INC shifted to a position of opposition against British rule - The British government encouraged the growth of the Muslim League (founded in 1906) as a strategy to counteract the influence of the INC
Influences on the movement: Woodrow Wilson and Lenin inspired independence aspirations.

Background - A Hindu who studied law in London and practiced in South Africa - Strongly opposed racial segregation - Returned to India in 1915 and transformed the INC into a mass movement - Received the title Mahatma, meaning "great soul" - Advocated against the caste system

Concepts - Ahimsa: the principle of nonviolence - Satyagraha: a form of passive resistance interpreting as "truth and firmness"
Major Movements - Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922) - Civil Disobedience Movement (1930) - Promoted boycotts of British institutions
Notable event: Amritsar Massacre (1919)

Established an autonomous legislature in British India - Met with resistance from 600 nominally sovereign princes who refused to cooperate - Concerns from Muslims regarding potential Hindu dominance - Exacerbated by the Great Depression which highlighted economic divisions
Proposal for partition: Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876–1948) suggested creating the state of Pakistan

Revolution of 1911 - Forced Emperor Puyi to abdicate - Sun Yatsen (1866–1925) proclaimed the Republic of China in 1912 - A period of political anarchy ensued - Local control exercised by independent warlords

May Fourth Movement - Students and urban intellectuals protest foreign interference, particularly from Japan - Marked increase in the popularity of Marxism - Chinese Communist Party founded in Shanghai in 1921, led by Mao Zedong (1893–1976)

Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-Shek, 1887–1975) took over after Sun Yatsen’s death - Launched a military expedition to unify China - Turned against communist allies, prompting a significant retreat
The Long March (1934): - Communists fled approximately 6,215 miles to northwest China - Led by Mao Zedong, who further developed Chinese communism (Maoism)

Political landscape dominated by power struggles between the Guomindang and the Communist Party.

Japan signed treaties under the League of Nations to limit imperialist activities between 1922-1928
Political upheaval with widespread assassinations in Japan.
Militaristic and imperialist factions called for an aggressive stance in the region, eyeing China as a target.

Japanese troops orchestrated explosions on the Japanese-built South Manchuria Railway in Manchuria as a pretext for war - Despite opposition from the Japanese civilian government, the military seized control of Manchuria and established Manchukuo as a puppet state - The League of Nations censured Japan, which led to Japan's withdrawal from the League.

African colonies participated actively in World War I - Allies invaded German-controlled colonies; Africans encouraged to combat European soldiers - Many European soldiers were redeployed, leaving gaps that encouraged local rebellions and challenges to European authority.

Emerged post-World War I, marked by a new class of elite influenced by education and experiences abroad - Notable figures: - Jomo Kenyatta (1895–1978), a Kenyan nationalist striving for modern nation-states in Africa - Pan-Africanism, promoted by Marcus Garvey (Jamaica, 1887–1940), advocating for a “Back to Africa” movement.

Hosted a significant reaction against U.S. influence, characterized by university student protests and explorations of alternative political ideologies, most notably Marxism - Key figures include: - Fidel Castro (Cuba, 1926– ) - José Carlos Mariátegui (Peru, 1895–1930) - Diego Rivera (Mexico, 1886–1957)

World War I shifted power dynamics, establishing U.S. economic dominance - Heavy capital investments in Latin America and raw material exports originating from the region - Under President William Howard Taft (1857–1931), U.S. neocolonialism characterized by “Dollar diplomacy” and accusations of “Yankee imperialism”.

Initiated by Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882–1945) - Fostered relationships with local leaders while avoiding direct military intervention - U.S. Marines trained local militias to maintain order.

Civil war during the 1920s in Nicaragua - U.S. support for Anastacio Somoza Garcia (1896–1956) - The opposition led by Augusto César Sandino challenged U.S. influence - Sandino assassinated by Somoza in 1934, yet Somoza maintained good ties with the U.S.

Lázaro Cárdenas (1895–1970) nationalized the Mexican oil industry in 1938 - Roosevelt's government formally renounced intervention in alignment with the Monroe Doctrine (1933) - Cárdenas successfully negotiated compensation for the British and U.S. businesses ($24 million), despite initially seeking $260 million. - Increasing reliance on Mexican immigrant labor in the U.S. had implications for future labor dynamics.