Introduction: The Nature of Rhetoric

Chapter One: Introduction to the Nature of Rhetoric

Origin of Rhetoric

• Etymology: The term "rhetoric" is derived from the Greek word "rhetorikē," used in the context of public speaking since the time of Socrates (5th century BC).

• Historical Context: First documented in Plato’s dialogue Gorgias (circa 385 BC), which critiques the role of rhetoric in a democratic society.

  • Rhetoric served as a civic art essential for participation in deliberative assemblies, law courts, and other formal settings in Greek cities, particularly Athens.

  • It is rooted in the instinct to influence others for self-preservation and group interests.

Rhetoric's Cultural Significance

• Broader Concept: Beyond public speaking, rhetoric encompasses the power of words to influence situations and convey meaning.

• Ancient Societies: Elements of rhetoric can be observed across civilizations, including Egypt and China, which produced handbooks on effective speaking.

Historical Development of Rhetoric

• Classical Rhetoric: Credited to democracies in Syracuse and Athens where systematic studies on rhetoric commenced in the 5th century BC.

• Sophists: Early teachers noted for their itinerant lectures and influence on public speaking practices.

  • Isocrates (4th century BC) established schools of rhetoric that shaped formal education.

  • Ancient rhetoricians recognized and borrowed rhetorical features from earlier Greek literature.

Rhetoric and Literature

• Influence on Literary Criticism: Rhetorical concepts affected both spoken and written composition—a significant mark of literature.

• Rhetorical Functions: All literature is "rhetorical" in its aim to alter the reader's experience, evoking teachings and pleasures (as noted by Horace).

Aristotle's Contributions

• Three Species of Rhetoric:

  • Judicial Rhetoric: Focused on judging past events (e.g., legal contexts).

  • Deliberative Rhetoric: Concerned with future actions, typically within political discourse.

  • Epideictic Rhetoric: Related to ceremonial speeches—aimed at praise or blame without a decision-making objective.

Structure of Classical Rhetoric

1. Invention (heuresis): Brainstorming and identifying persuasive means and subject matter.

   • Direct evidence (e.g., contracts) vs. artistic means (ethos, logos, pathos).

   • Use of topics (topoi) for audience engagement.

2. Arrangement (taxis): Organizing the structure of a speech:

   • Key parts include introduction, narration, proof, and conclusion.

   • Order of arguments can affect speech impact—strongest arguments may be addressed at the beginning or climax.

3. Style (lexis): Articulation of the argument into language.

   • Components include diction and composition.

   • Emphasizes four virtues: correctness, clarity, ornamentation, propriety.

4. Memory: Importance of memorizing speeches for effective delivery.

   • Development of mnemonic systems in ancient practices.

5. Delivery: Practical aspects of speaking, including voice control and gestures, critical for overall effectiveness.

Critiques of Rhetoric

• Historical Skepticism: Throughout antiquity, rhetoric faced criticism for its association with manipulation and deceit.

  • Critics included Plato, who viewed rhetoric as a sham related to flattery and lacking true knowledge.

• The Role of Sophists: Sophists were early rhetoricians critiqued for prioritizing persuasion over truth, challenging the essence of moral arguments in discourse.

Conclusion: Rhetoric's Evolution

• Despite early resistance, rhetoric developed robustly, proving essential for civic engagement and literary communication.

• Acknowledged as a necessary skill in navigating discourse and understanding the interplay of beliefs and values. Rhetoric is foundational in philosophy, education, and public life.