Home

aphg notes

Unit Overview

What distinguishes geography from all other fields is its focus on a particular

perspective, or way of looking at things. That distinctive perspective is

spatial and a concern for the interactions between humans and the physical

environment. Geographers are certainly interested in where questions, but

more importantly, they focus on the why there question, often expressed as

“the why of where.”

A spatial approach considers the arrangement of the phenomena being

studied across the surface of the earth. The course’s Big Ideas (see pages xxiv–

xxv), Four-Level Analysis (described below through page 3), and the five skill

categories (see pages 3–7) will serve as reliable frameworks for understanding

topics from a geographic perspective.

Branches of Geography

Geography is commonly divided into two major branches that bridge the gap

between the physical and social sciences:

• Physical geography is the study of the spatial characteristics of various

elements of the physical environment. Physical geographers study topics

such as landforms, bodies of water, climate, ecosystems, and erosion.

• Human geography is the study of the spatial characteristics of humans

and human activities. Human geographers study topics such as

population, culture, politics, urban areas, and economics.

Four-Level Analysis Spatial Framework

Location is at the heart of all geographic understanding. The thinking skills

used by geographers help them understand why things and people are where

they are, and why the location of an item or of people with particular traits

are important. The Four-Level Analysis spatial framework will guide your

thinking, provide an approach to spatial thinking, and help you think like a

geographer. You will use this process when looking at a map, chart, graph, data

table, landscape, or an image such as Earth at night (shown on the following

page).

2 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

Source: nasa.gov

2016 global scale Earth at night

FOUR-LEVEL ANALYSIS SPATIAL FRAMEWORK

Level Key Questions Possible Answers for

Earth at Night Image Above

Comprehension

What?

Where?

When?

Scale?

Source?

• What? Earth at night

• Where? Earth

• When? 2016

• Scale? Global scale

• Source? nasa.gov

Identification

Are there patterns in the

source?

The source could be a map,

chart, graph, etc. There could

be multiple patterns.

Numerous patterns

• Coasts are brighter than interior

• Northern Hemisphere is brighter

than Southern Hemisphere

• Eastern China is brighter than

Western China

Explanation

Pick a pattern from the

source and explain:

Why did this pattern occur

there? or How did this pattern

occur?

You will use the content of

the course to help answer

these questions.

Why do so many people live near the

coasts?

Access to global trade networks

or natural resources from oceans

(fish), which results in more job

opportunities, income, and food.

The interior often has harsher

climates (deserts or cold) and often

less access to natural resources.

Prediction

What will be the impact on

the economy, society, politics,

or the environment? or What

if the pattern continues into

the future?

Describe the impact or

effects and make predictions.

Impacts:

• Economic—Cost of living (rent) is

higher on the coasts because of

the high demand for housing.

• Environmental—Human and factory

waste can pollute the ocean, killing

fish and wildlife.

Unit 1: Thinking geographically 3

The chart on the previous page is designed to be just an introduction to the

process with relatively simple responses and is not meant to include all possible

answers. The depth and quality of responses should improve as you develop a

deeper understanding of human geography. Throughout the text, references

will be made to the different levels by using L1, L2, L3, or L4.

Essential Geography Skill Categories 1–5

The AP® Human Geography exam will require students to not only learn the

content and discipline-specific language of the course, but utilize and apply a

set of essential skills to demonstrate their understanding of human geography.

This section introduces these skills and prepares students to apply these skills

using real world scenarios across all units of the course and both parts of the

exam.

Skill Category 1: Concepts and Processes

Analyze geographic theories, approaches, concepts, processes, or models in

theoretical and applied contexts.

This skill contains a large amount of the content of the course and is the most

tested skill on the exam:

• Analyze means to break down into parts and study each part carefully.

• A theory is a system of ideas and concepts that attempt to explain and

prove why or how interactions have occurred in the past or will occur in

the future.

• Concepts are key vocabulary, ideas, and building blocks that geographers

use to describe our world.

• Processes involve a series of steps or actions that explain why or how

geographic patterns occur.

Models in Geography The most important element of this skill involves

understanding and applying geographic models. Geographers, similar to

biologists, meteorologists, and others who deal with complex reality, create

geographic models. Models are representations of reality or theories about

reality, to help geographers see general spatial patterns, focus on the influence

of specific factors, and understand variations from place to place. Models help

explain, describe, and sometimes even predict spatial activity and phenomena.

There are two basic types of geographic models—spatial and nonspatial:

• Spatial models look like stylized maps, and they illustrate theories about

spatial distributions. Spatial models have been developed for agricultural

and urban land use, distributions of cities, and store or factory location.

• Nonspatial models illustrate theories and concepts using words, graphs,

or tables. They often depict changes over time rather than across space

with more accuracy than spatial models.

4 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

Data Driven Models (Formulas and Graphs) Geographers use

mathematic formulas to help them understand how the world works. These

formulas function much like models. Some formulas, such as those that

determine crude birth and death rates, doubling times for populations, and

population densities, are mathematical calculations that are used to produce a

statistic.

One model that helps explain some patterns evident on the Earth at night

image is what geographers call time-distance decay. Basically, the idea is that

things, such as cities, near each other are more closely connected or related

than things that are far apart, as shown in the graph below. The bright lights on

the border between the United States and Mexico on the Earth at night map are

partly explained because the lights show cities on both sides of the border. This

illustrates the countries have lots of connections economically and culturally

because they are close to each other.

TIME/DISTANCE DECAY MODEL Time/Distance Decay Model

Number of Interactions

Distance From Each Other (Time or Distance) 0

The Time-Distance Decay Model illustrates decreasing interactions and connections as distance increases.

Applying Concepts and Processes In order to be successful in all

elements of this skill, you will need to describe, explain, and compare concepts,

processes, models, and theories. Students will have to apply the models in

various contexts from around the world. The most challenging part of this

skill will be to explain the strengths, weaknesses, and limitations of the model.

Another way of saying this is, where a model works and where it doesn’t work

and explain why.

Skill Category 2: Spatial Relationships

Analyze geographic patterns, relationships, and outcomes in applied contexts.

Maps are the signature element of geography. Geographers examine maps to

look for clues and patterns in the location and distribution of phenomena (L1

and L2). Spatial patterns refer to the general arrangement of things being

studied. Describing these spatial patterns, networks, and relationships with

precise language is critical to understanding spatial relationships. Geographers

Unit 1: Thinking geographically 5

use specific terms—density, dispersion, clustered, scattered, linked, etc.—to

communicate about locations and distributions.

Applying Spatial Relationships In order to be successful in this skill,

students will view a source such as the North America at night image and then

use the concepts, models, and theories to explain why and how the patterns on

the image occurred (L3 and L4) and some likely outcomes (L4).

Geographers look at the networks, patterns, and relationships that exist

between locations, how they evolve, and what their effects are. Networks are a

set of interconnected entities, sometimes called nodes. The image below shows

a network of cities that are connected by numerous strings of lights. These

lights follow highways, rail lines, or river routes of transportation and illustrate

a connectiveness to U.S. urban and transportation systems.

The last element of this skill requires explaining the degree to which

a geographic concept or model effectively describes or explains expected

outcomes. This skill requires a deep understanding of different regions of the

world and an ability to understand the strengths and weaknesses of various

models and theories.

Source: nasa.gov

2016 North America at night

Skill Category 3: Data Analysis

Analyze and interpret quantitative geographic data represented in maps, tables,

charts, graphs, satellite images, and infographics.

Quantitative data is any information that can be measured and recorded

using numbers such as total number of immigrants to a city. More specifically,

geospatial data is quantitative and spatial. It has a geographic location

component to it such as a country, city, zip code, latitude, longitude, or address

and is often used with geographic information systems (see Topics 1.2 and 1.3)

because it lends itself to analysis using formulas and is mappable. An example

would be average annual income by country.

6 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

Applying Data Analysis This skill is similar to Skill 2 except it involves

interpreting quantitative statistical data expressed in numbers. This numerical

data can be shown in a variety of ways, and examples include life expectancy,

income, birth rate, etc. If the data is shown in a map, describing the spatial

pattern (L2) accurately and with precision is critical for analysis. If the data is in

a graph or chart, describing the variables and trend on the graph or chart (L2)

is very important to an accurate interpretation.

The data analysis skill requires the use of concepts, models, and theories to

explain why and how these patterns occurred (L3) and some likely outcomes

and/or impacts (L4). Using the global scale Earth at night, you can use

quantitative data, such as income, to explain why some places are brighter than

others. Places that have higher income are more likely to afford electricity in

their homes. But be careful, because a difference in income isn’t the only reason

why some places are bright or dark. Some of the dark areas may be difficult

to live in due to extreme climates, such as the regions within the Sahara in

northern Africa.

The most difficult part of this skill will be to recognize the limitations of the

data. This will require an understanding of trustworthy sources of information,

incomplete or inaccurate data, and possible mistakes in gathering the data.

Skill Category 4: Source Analysis

Analyze and interpret qualitative geographic information represented in maps,

images (e.g., satellite, photographic, cartoon), and landscapes.

Qualitative sources are not usually represented by numbers. This data is

collected as interviews, photographs, remote satellite images, descriptions, or

cartoons. For example, asking people if they feel an intersection is dangerous is

qualitative as is reviewing a photograph of a city’s landscape.

Applying Source Analysis When viewing qualitative sources, you can use

Four-Level Analysis to help guide your approach. Geographers look for the

following elements: types of information within the source, patterns within a

source, and similarities and differences between sources (L1 and L2).

Once this has been accomplished, geographers turn their attention to

explaining the reasons why or how geographic concepts and ideas explain the

patterns (L3) within the source and the possible impacts of the patterns (L4).

Like all data, there are limitations of visual and other qualitative resources

such as only showing a part of the overall landscape, the time of day that the

information was gathered, interviews that may include opinions not based on

accurate information, or the author’s lack of understanding of a culture’s beliefs

or values. In the case of the Earth at night image, one of the major limitations is

that the image does not show lights where all people in the world live, just the

places that can afford to have electricity. The image really only shows wealthier

populations and larger cities where electricity is available.

Unit 1: Thinking geographically 7

Skill Category 5: Scale Analysis

Analyze geographic theories, approaches, concepts, processes, and models across

geographic scales to explain spatial relationships.

One of the most powerful skills of geographers is changing scales of analysis,

or looking at topics at the local, regional, country, or global scale. This process

will be described in greater detail in Chapter 2 (see Topic 1.6), but essentially,

changing scale of analysis involves studying phenomena by zooming in and

zooming out in order to develop a more complete understanding of the topics

being studied.

Applying Scale Analysis The Earth at night image can be used again

to solidify your understanding. The map shows an image at the global or

worldwide scale, and the pattern of more people living on the coast than the

interior is a strong global scale pattern. However, the pattern that more people

live in eastern China than western China is a country level scale of analysis. To

take this one step further, a geographer could zoom into the local or city scale

to see the border between the United States and Mexico, near San Diego. What

is important is that at each scale, we may observe different patterns and reasons

of why or how (L3) or the impacts (L4) that may be different or the same at

each scale of analysis.

Source: nasa.gov

A zoomed in view of the U.S.-Mexico border showing San Diego, California, and Tijuana, Mexico.

Mastering the strategy of Four-Level Analysis spatial framework and the

five essential skills of this course will take your ability to understand human

geography to the next level.

ENDURING UNDERSTANDINGS

IMP-1: Geographers use maps and data to depict relationships of time, space, and scale.

PSO-1: Geographers analyze relationships among and between places to reveal

important spatial patterns.

SPS-1: Geographers analyze complex issues and relationships with a distinctively

spatial perspective.

Source: AP® Human Geography Course and Exam Description. Effective Fall 2020. (College Board).

8 Chapter 1: Maps and Geographic Data

Maps and Geographic Data

Topics 1.1–1.3

Topic 1.1 Introduction to Maps

Learning Objective: Identify types of maps, the types of information presented

in maps, and different kinds of spatial patterns and relationships portrayed in

maps. (IMP-1.A)

Topic 1.2 Geographic Data

Learning Objective: Identify different methods of geographic data collection.

(IMP-1.B)

Topic 1.3 The Power of Geographic Data

Learning Objective: Explain the geographical effects of decisions made using

geographical information. (IMP-1.C)

The map—what a great idea!—is also one of the oldest and perhaps

the most powerful and constant of geographic ideas. . . . Although

they may be as beautiful as any work of art,

we distinguish maps from art in the way we look at them. . . .

The map’s message does not lie in its overall effect but in

the locational information it carries.

—Anne Godlewska, Ten Geographic Ideas That Changed the World

Source: Wikimedia Commons

John Snow used

geographic reasoning

to locate the source of a

cholera outbreak to a water

pump on Broad Street in

London in 1854. The black

dashes are cases of cholera.

(See Topic 1.3 for how

geographic data is used.)

CHAPTER 1

1.1: Introduction to maps 9

1.1

Introduction to Maps

Essential Question: What information is presented in different types

of maps, and how do those maps show spatial patterns, the power of

geographic data, and relationships among places?

Geographers emphasize spatial patterns, which are the general arrangements

of things being studied and the repeated sequences of events, or processes,

that create them. Learning to recognize and use geographical patterns is a

fundamental skill in understanding the discipline. One of the most important

tools of geographers are maps. Improvements in geospatial and computer

technologies have dramatically increased the quality of maps, the accuracy of

data, and the variety of maps available to study and use. Maps and geospatial

data now influence everyday life with the use of smartphones and apps that

allow us to not only view maps but interact, modify, and show our own location

within the map.

Maps

Maps are the most important tool of a geographer and help to organize complex

information. No tool communicates spatial information more effectively than a

map. Maps are essential in highlighting and analyzing patterns. There are two

broad categories of maps: reference maps and thematic maps:

Reference Maps

Reference maps are aptly named because they are designed for people to refer

to for general information about places.

• Political maps show and label human-created boundaries and

designations, such as countries, states, cities, and capitals.

• Physical maps show and label natural features, such as mountains, rivers,

and deserts.

• Road maps show and label highways, streets, and alleys.

• Plat maps show and label property lines and details of land ownership.

10 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

REFERENCE MAP OF MEXICO

Inter-American Highway

Ciudad

Juárez

Guadalajara

Puebla

Mexico City

Ecatepec

UNITED STATES

GUATEMALA

MEXICO

BELIZE

CUBA

PACIFIC

OCEAN

Gulf of

Mexico

Highway

Mountains

National capital

Major city

100 200

300 Kilometers

300 Miles

Reference map of Mexico from 2020. What type of reference material is included in the map? For what

purpose might this map be useful?

Thematic Maps

Thematic maps show spatial aspects of information or of a phenomenon.

Following are descriptions of four common types of thematic maps.

Choropleth maps use

various colors, shades of one

color, or patterns to show the

location and distribution of

spatial data. They often show

rates or other quantitative data

in defined areas, such as the

percentage of people who speak

English.

Dot distribution maps are

used to show the specific location

and distribution of something

across a map. Each dot represents

a specified quantity. One dot

might stand for one school

building or for millions of people

who own dogs. While these maps

are known as dot distribution

maps, any kind of symbol—a

triangle, the outline of a house, a

cow—can be used instead of dots.

Choropleth

MAP PATTERNS

Dot Distribution Isoline

Graduated Symbol

MAP PATTERNS

1.1: Introduction to maps 11

Graduated symbol maps use symbols of different sizes to indicate different

amounts of something. Larger sizes indicate more of something, and smaller

sizes indicate less. These maps make it easy to see where the largest and smallest

of some phenomena are by simply comparing the symbols to each other. The

map key is used to determine the exact amount. The symbols themselves are

arranged on the map centered over the location represented by the data, so

they may overlap. Graduated symbol maps are also called proportional symbol

maps.

Isoline maps, also called isometric maps, use lines that connect points

of equal value to depict variations in the data across space. Where lines are

close together, the map depicts rapid change, and where the lines are farther

apart, the phenomenon is relatively the same. The most common type of isoline

maps are topographic maps, which are popular among hikers. Points of equal

elevation are connected on these maps, creating contours that depict surface

features. Other examples of isoline maps are weather maps showing changes in

barometric pressure, temperature, or precipitation across space.

In a cartogram, the sizes of countries (or states, counties, or other areal

units) are shown according to some specific statistic. In the example below,

the cartogram of world population shows Canada and Morocco as roughly the

same size because they have similar populations (about 35 million people),

even though Canada is more than 20 times larger in area. Any variable for

which there are statistics can be substituted for the size of the country and

mapped in the same way. Cartograms are useful because they allow for data to

be compared, much like a graph, and distance and distribution are also visible,

like on a traditional map.

China

India

Indonesia

United

States

Canada

Morocco

The size of each country reflects the total population. Based on the graphic, which countries have the

largest populations?

12 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

Scale

Nearly every map is a smaller version of a larger portion of the earth’s surface.

In other words, a map is a reduction of the actual land area it represents. Scale

is the ratio between the size of things in the real world and the size of those

same things on the map. A map has three types of scale: cartographic scale,

geographic scale and the scale of the data represented on the map. (See Topic

1.6 for more about scale.)

Cartographic scale refers to the way the map communicates the ratio of its

size to the size of what it represents:

• Words: for example, “1 inch equals 10 miles.” In this case, 2 inches on the

map would be 20 miles on the surface of the Earth.

• A ratio: for example, 1/200,000 or 1:200,000. This means that 1 unit of

measurement on the map is equal to 200,000 of the same unit in reality.

For example, 1 inch on the map represents 200,000 inches (or 3.15 miles)

on the ground.

• A line: for example, the map may show a line and indicate that its distance

on the map represents ten miles in reality. This is sometimes called a

linear, or graphic, scale.

• Scale: Small-scale maps show a larger amount of area with less detail—

global scale Earth at night is an example. Large-scale maps show a

smaller amount of area with a greater amount of detail—North America

at night is an example.

Types of Spatial Patterns Represented on a Map

Spatial patterns refer to the general arrangement of phenomena on a map.

Spatial patterns can be described in a variety of way utilizing important

geographic tools and concepts including location, direction, distance, elevation,

or distribution pattern.

Location

Locations may be absolute or relative. Absolute location is the precise spot

where something is according to a system. The most widely used system is the

global grid of lines known as latitude and longitude. Latitude is the distance

north or south of the equator, an imaginary line that circles the globe exactly

halfway between the North and South Poles. The equator is designated as 0

degrees and the poles as 90 degrees north and 90 degrees south.

Longitude is the distance east or west of the prime meridian, an imaginary

line that runs from pole to pole through Greenwich, England. It is designated

as 0 degrees. On the opposite side of the globe from the prime meridian is

180 degrees longitude. The International Date Line roughly follows this line

but makes deviations to accommodate international boundaries. Thus, on this

system, the absolute location of Mexico City is 19 degrees north latitude and 99

degrees west longitude.

1.1: Introduction to maps 13

THE GLOBAL GRID

NORTH

AMERICA

Mexico City 19 ̊N, 99 ̊W

SOUTH

AMERICA

ANTARCTICA

AUSTRALIA

AFRICA

EUROPE

ASIA

PACIFIC

OCEAN

INDIAN

OCEAN

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

Equator

Prime meridian

ARCTIC OCEAN

SOUTHERN OCEAN

150 ̊ 120 ̊ 90 ̊ 60 ̊ 30 ̊ 0 ̊ 30 ̊ 60 ̊ 90 ̊ 120 ̊ 150 ̊

0 ̊ 0 ̊

30 ̊

60 ̊

30 ̊

60 ̊

30 ̊

0 2,000 Miles

0 2,000 Kilometers

60 ̊

THE GLOBAL GRID

Relative location is a description of where something is in relation to

other things. To describe Salt Lake City, Utah, as being “just south of the Great

Salt Lake and just west of the Rocky Mountains, on Interstate 15 about halfway

between Las Vegas, Nevada, and Butte, Montana,” is one way (of many) to

describe its relative location. Relative location is often described in terms of

connectivity, how well two locations are tied together by roads or other links,

and accessibility, how quickly and easily people in one location can interact

with people in another location.

Direction is used in order to describe where things are in relation to each

other. Cardinal directions such as north, east, south, or west or intermediate

directions such as southeast or southwest are commonly used to describe

direction. On most maps, north will be the top of the map, but be sure to look

on the map for cardinal direction clues.

THE RELATIVE LOCATION OF SALT LAKE CITY

Las

Vegas

IDAHO

NEVADA

OREGON

WYOMING

UTAH

ARIZONA

MONTANA

WASHINGTON

Butte

Salt Lake

City CALIFORNIA

I NTERSTATE 15

MEXICO

CANADA

0 500 Miles

0 500 Kilometers

This map shows the

relative location of Salt

Lake City along Interstate

15. What are advantages

for business or cities being

located near an interstate?

14 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

Relative locations can change over time and as accessibility changes. For

example, the many ghost towns (abandoned settlements) of the western United

States once had relative locations near water sources (which dried up), along

trade routes (which changed), or near mines (which closed). Their good relative

locations lost the advantages of access to resources or trade that they once had.

However, their absolute locations, as described by the global grid of latitude

and longitude, remain the same.

Distance

Distance is a measurement of how far or how near things are to one another.

Absolute distance is usually measured in terms of feet, miles, meters or

kilometers. For example, the absolute distance from home to your school is

2.2 miles.

The term relative distance indicates the degree of nearness based on time

or money and is often dependent on the mode of travel. For example, traveling

from home to your school takes 10 minutes by car or 25 minutes walking.

Elevation

Elevation is the distance of features above sea level, usually measured in

feet or meters. The elevation of the summit of Mount Everest is over 29,000

feet. Elevation can impact a variety of things including climate, weather, and

agriculture. Usually, the higher the elevation, the cooler the temperature gets

and at very high elevations, it becomes more difficult for certain crops to grow.

Elevation is usually shown on maps with contours (isolines).

A B

30 30

40 40

Source: usgs.gov

A contour map (isoline), like the one above, shows elevation of physical features.

1.1: Introduction to maps 15

Pattern Distribution

Geographers are also interested in distribution, the way a phenomenon is spread

out over an area (L2). Essentially, distribution is a description of the pattern of

where specific phenomenon are located. Geographers look for patterns, or the

general arrangement of things, in the distribution of phenomena across space

that give clues about causes or effects of the distribution. Common distribution

patterns include the following:

• Clustered or agglomerated phenomena are arranged in a group or

concentrated area such as restaurants in a food court at a mall or the

clustering of cities along the border of the United States and Mexico.

• Linear phenomena are arranged in a straight line, such as the distribution

of towns along a railroad line.

• Dispersed phenomena are spread out over a large area, such as the

distribution of large malls in a city.

• Circular phenomena are equally spaced from a central point, forming

a circle, such as the distribution of the homes of people who shop at a

particular store.

• Geometric phenomena are in a regular arrangement, such as the squares

or blocks formed by roads in the Midwest.

• Random phenomena appear to have no order to their position, such as

the distribution of pet owners in a city.

Projections

Because the earth is a sphere and maps are flat, all maps distort some aspect

of reality. The process of showing a curved surface on a flat surface is done

using a map projection. Cartographers decide whether they want to preserve

area, shape, distance, or direction on their map accurately, knowing that other

elements will have to be less accurate as the earth is “flattened” on their map.

Essentially all maps are distorted, but cartographers use different maps for

different purposes.

The Mercator, one of the most famous projections, was designed for

navigation because the lines of directions are straight and easy to follow. A

weakness of the Mercator on a global scale is that it makes the land masses

appear larger than reality as you move north or south from the equator. This

results in the countries of North America and Europe appearing larger and

possibly more powerful than the countries near the equator. Greenland’s size

on a Mercator looks to be the same size of Africa, however, in reality, Africa is

14 times the size of Greenland.

Geographers are concerned by the political and economic bias of power,

wealth, and superiority that can be subconsciously reinforced by using an

incorrect projection. All projections and maps have strengths and weaknesses.

The key is to understand this and select the best projection for the map.

16 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

30o S0o

60o W

60o E

180o W

120o W

120o E

180o E

30o N

60o N

90o N

60o S

90o S

90o N

90o S

30o S0o

30o N 30o S 90o N 60o N 45o S 0o

60o W

60o E

180o W

120o W

120o E

180o E

30o N

60o N

60o S

30o S

60o W

60o E

180o W

120o W

120o E

180o E

60o W 60o E

120o W 120o E

180o W 180o E

30o N

60o N

90o N

60o S

90o S

Mercator Projection Peters Projection

Conic Projection Robinson Projection

COMPARING MAP PROJECTIONS

Projection Purpose Strengths Distortion

(Weaknesses)

Mercator Navigation • Directions are shown

accurately

• Lines of latitude and

longitude meet at

right angles

• Distance between

lines of longitude

appears constant

• Land masses near the

poles appear large

Peters Spatial distributions

related to area

• Sizes of land masses

are accurate

• Shapes are

inaccurate, especially

near the poles

Conic General use in

midlatitude countries

• Lines of longitude

converge

• Lines of latitude are

curved

• Size and shape are

both close to reality

• Direction is not

constant

• On a world map,

longitude lines

converge at only one

pole

Robinson General use • No major distortion

• Oval shape appears

more like a globe than

does a rectangle

• Area, shape, size,

and direction are all

slightly distorted

1.1: Introduction to maps 17

REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION

Essential Question: What information is presented in different types of maps, and

how do those maps show spatial patterns, the power of geographic data, and rela-

tionships among places?

Types of Maps Types of Information

in Maps

Ways to Describe

Spatial Patterns

KEY TERMS

physical geography

human geography

Four-Level Analysis

analyze

theory

concepts

processes

models

spatial models

nonspatial models

time-distance decay

spatial patterns

networks

quantitative data

geospatial data

qualitative sources

scales of analysis

reference maps

political maps

physical maps

road maps

plat maps

thematic maps

choropleth maps

dot distribution maps

graduated symbol maps

isoline maps

topographic maps

cartogram

scale

cartographic scale

small-scale maps

large-scale maps

absolute location

latitude

equator

longitude

prime meridian

International Date Line

relative location

connectivity

accessibility

direction

patterns

absolute distance

relative distance

elevation

distribution

clustered (agglomerated)

distribution

linear distribution

dispersed distribution

circular distribution

geometric distribution

random distribution

18 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

1.2

Geographic Data

Essential Question: What are different methods of geographical data

collection?

Geographers often refer to the current era as being part of a geospatial

revolution because they gather data through technical mapping and via satellites

or aerial photos. Geographers also have the ability to gather data by visiting

places, interviewing people, or observing events in the field. The quality of data

gathered by individuals or institutions is important because patterns within the

data will influence real-life individual choices and policy decisions.

Landscape Analysis

The word landscape comes from older Germanic words that refer to the

condition of the land. The term can also imply a specific area, as in a “desert

landscape” or the “landscape of Tuscany.” The task of defining and describing

landscapes is called landscape analysis.

Observation and Interpretation

The first part of landscape analysis is careful observation. Geographers are

keen observers of phenomena and collect data about what they see. The term

field observation is used to refer to the act of physically visiting a location,

place, or region and recording, firsthand, information there. Geographers can

often be found writing notes, taking photographs, sketching maps, counting

and measuring things, and interviewing people as they walk through an area

that they are interested in studying. For most of the history of geography, this

was the only way to gather data about places. All of the information that can be

tied to specific locations is called spatial data.

Developments in Gathering Data Modern technology has increased the

ways in which geographers can obtain spatial data including remote sensing

and aerial sources. Remote sensing gathers information from satellites that

orbit the earth or other craft above the atmosphere. Aerial photography,

professional images captured from planes within the atmosphere, is an

important source of observed data available today. Ground-level photography

has replaced sketching as a tool for capturing information about landscapes.

Sound recordings and the ability to get chemical analyses of air, water, and soil

have also changed the way geographers observe a landscape.

Interpreting Data Once data has been gathered, it must be interpreted.

Geographers depend on their skills of synthesizing and integrating, or putting

together, all of the collected information to better understand the place, area,

1.2: Geographic data 19

or landscape being studied. A common example clearly observable today is

the changes that occur in the landscapes of rural and urban areas over time.

A geographer may be interested in understanding what changes are likely to

occur as people move into or out of an area:

• Who are the people migrating into this area? Who is leaving?

• What are the cultures of these groups of people?

• What effects will the changes have on the local economy?

• What are the causes of people moving?

• What types of human-environment interaction are occurring?

Geospatial Data

Geospatial data can be quantitative or qualitative and may be gathered by

organizations or individuals. Geospatial data includes all information that can

be tied to a specific place. Besides locations of things, such as mountains or

roads or boundaries, it includes human activities and traits. Where do speakers

of Mandarin live? How common is poverty in each U.S. county? Where is the

dividing line in a city between students who attend one high school and those

who attend another school?

SOURCES OF QUANTITATIVE DATA

2020

1990 1990

66.49

years

75.20

years

70.41

years

61.94

years

World female life

expectancy at

birth increased

by 8.71 years

World male life

expectancy at birth

increased by

8.47 years

LIFE EXPECTANCY, 1990 AND 2020

80 years

70 years

60 years

50 years

40 years

30 years

1770 1800 1850 1900 1950 2015

United

States

Japan

Ethiopia

China

World

LIFE EXPECTANCY, 2019

<50 years

55 years

60 years

65 years

70 years

75 years

80 years

>85 years

GLOBAL LIFE EXPECTANCY 2015 AND 2019

Country 2015 2019 Absolute

Change

Realtive

Change

Afghanistan 63.4 years 64.8 years +1.5 years +2%

Africa 61.6 years 63.2 years +1.6 years +3%

Albania 78 years 78.6 years +0.5 years <1%

Algeria 76.1 years 76.9 years +0.8 years +1%

American Samoa 73.6 years 73.7 years +0.2 years <1%

Americas 76.4 years 76.8 years +0.4 years <1%

Andorra 83.1 years 83.7 years +0.7 years <1%

Angola 59.4 years 61.1 years +1.7 years +3%

Anguilla 81.3 years 81.9 years +0.5 years <1%

Antigua and Barbuda 76.5 years 77.9 years +0.5 years <1%

MAP GRAPH

DATA TABLE INFOGRAPHIC

Source: ourworldindata.org

The images illustrate different ways that quantitative geospatial data related to life expectancy can be

presented. What are strengths and weaknesses of data presented in each image?

20 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

Obtaining Geospatial Data

Geographers collect geospatial data by doing fieldwork, or observing and

recording information on location, or in the field. Important sources of this

type of data can come from a census of the population, from interviews, or even

from informal observations made by geographers. Land surveys, photographs,

and sketches are also important ways in which this data is obtained. Technology

is making the collection, storage, analysis, and display of geospatial data easier,

as well as more accurate, than at any time in the past. The chart in Topic 1.3

illustrates three technologies that have revolutionized the importance of

geospatial data.

Other Sources of Geospatial Data

Additional sources of data can come from government policy documents

such as treaties or agreements, articles and videos from news media outlets, or

photos of an area. Many tech companies who design apps for smartphones use

locational data elements that make suggestions on food options or activities

that are near to you. Most photos taken with smartphones have geospatial

data embedded into the image that can be mapped in interactive online maps

sites. In fact, many companies and some governments are interested in buying

your smartphone geospatial data so they can make targeted advertisements or

policy decisions related to

your locational activities.

Students of geography can

be local geographers who

gather information for

projects or field studies.

REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION

Essential Question: What are different methods of geographical data collection?

Individual Sources Institutional Sources

KEY TERMS

landscape analysis

field observations

spatial data

remote sensing

aerial photography

fieldwork

Qualitative data can include photos (as

of Tokyo to the left), satellite photos (as

seen on page 2), cartoons, or interviews.

How can qualitative data better help

geographers to understand a place?

1.3: The power of geographic data 21

1.3

The Power of Geographic Data

Essential Question: What are the effects of decisions made using

geographical information?

Geographic data is powerful. When used properly and ethically, it can have

many positive benefits for individuals, companies, governments, and society.

However, misusing it can lead people to draw inaccurate conclusions or make

poor decisions. So, understanding the limitations of the data and carefully

monitoring improper uses of this information are essential to ensure that the

data is beneficial, not harmful, to individuals or a society.

Using Geographic Data to Solve Problems

There are many technological sources of geospatial data and many ways the

data obtained from those sources is used in our everyday life. As computers

and technology has rapidly improved, large quantities of information can now

be rapidly gathered and stored. This data can then be turned into amazing

2D or even 3D interactive maps, or geovisualizations, that allow people to

zoom in or out to see the data in ways that were previously impossible. When

skillfully used, tools such as Google Earth, ESRI 3D GIS, OpenStreetMap, or

the COVID-19 map (produced by Johns Hopkins University) allow viewers to

see the world and data in new and interesting ways. These geovisualizations can

help people better understand the world they live.

More importantly, the data helps solve real world problems. For example,

accurately tracking and mapping the COVID-19 pandemic that began in 2019

resulted in saving lives in hot spots. At same time, it allowed areas that were

less affected by the virus to open businesses and to allow students back into

classrooms.

Even with all of these techniques, all data has limitations and geographers

must be careful to accurately gather and interpret the data. Maps are only as

valuable as the data used to create the map. Interview data may be from only

a small percentage of the population and not represent all of the views in a

community. Sometimes data sets may exclude segments of the population,

such as the homeless or undocumented workers. A constant concern for

geographers and others who interpret data is that people may make simple

errors by typing information incorrectly into a computer.

These limitations may not make the data completely useless, but they can

create gaps and inaccuracies in the data. Potentially, bad data can cause people

using the map to draw inaccurate conclusions.

22 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES

Type Description Uses

Global

Positioning

System (GPS)

GPS receivers on the earth’s

surface use the locations

of multiple satellites to

determine and record a

receiver’s exact location

• Locating borders precisely

• Navigating ships, aircraft, and cars

• Mapping lines (trails) or points (fire

hydrants)

Remote

Sensing

The use of cameras or other

sensors mounted on aircraft

or satellites to collect digital

images or video of the

earth’s surface

• Determining land cover and use

• Monitoring environmental changes

• Assessing spread of spatial

phenomena

• Monitoring the weather

Geographic

Information

Systems (GIS)

Computer system that can

store, analyze, and display

information from multiple

digital maps or geospatial

data sets

• Analyzing of crime data

• Monitoring the effects of pollution

• Analyzing transportation/travel time

• Planning urban area

Smartphone

and Computer

Applications

Location-aware apps

that gather, store, and

use locational data from

computers or other

personal devices

• Suggesting restaurants, stores, or

best routes to users

• Contact tracing related to tracking

diseases or exposure to chemicals

• Mapping of photos from geotags

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS)

Real World

Elevations

Land usage

Streets

GIS are computer-based tools that are used gather, manage, and analyze data related to position on the

Earth’s surface

1.3: The power of geographic data 23

Solutions in Action

Geographers can use geospatial data tools to identify problems that exist in our

world such as water shortages, potential famine, or rising conflicts. One case

study involves the people of the Nuba Mountains in Sudan. Using maps and

remote sensing technologies, such as satellite and aerial images, researchers

observed possible humanitarian concerns. These concerns were related to

conflicts in the area that

resulted in a lack of access

to clean drinking water

or infrastructure such as

hospitals or schools. A team

of researchers decided to

visit the community in order

to assess the situation from

the ground using landscape

analysis techniques. The hope

was to develop a community-

based solution and the power

of governmental and non-

governmental organizations

(NGO) to help the people

improve their standard of

living. Community-based solutions increase the likelihood of success because

they create buy-in from local residents and are more likely to be culturally

accepted. As a result, geographers and Sudanese family members living in the

United States are working with organizations such as the Nuba Water Project

to develop solutions to bring better access to water, medicine, and education to

the people of the Nuba Mountains in Sudan. Geography in action!

Source: cosv.org

Many people in Africa struggle with access to clean drinking

water. This water pumps provides access to water for young

girls their family in Darfur Sudan. Why is cooperation with

the local community and researchers important?

REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION

Essential Question: What are the effects of decisions made using geographical

information?

Sources of Geospatial Data Benefits of Using Geospatial Data

KEY TERMS

geovisualization

Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

remote sensing

Geographic Information System (GIS)

community-based solutions

24 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVES: THE LONDON SUBWAY MAP

One of the most useful maps in history is also one of the most inaccurate. And

its inaccuracies are what make it so useful. The map of the London subway

system, known as the Underground, demonstrates the value of the concept of

relative location. A portion of this map is shown below.

Beck’s Map

By 1931, the Underground had become so complex that an accurate but

conveniently small map was hard to read. Harry Beck, an Underground

employee, realized that a simpler map would be more useful. Passengers did

not need to know every twist and turn in the routes, so he created a map with

straight lines. Passengers were also not particularly concerned with distances,

so he adjusted the space between stops on the map. He spread out the ones in

the congested central city and reduced space between the outlying stops so they

fit on the map easily.

The result was a map based on relative location that was easy to read and

convenient to use. Passengers knew where to get on, where to get off, and at

which stops they could transfer from one line to another.

Popular Demand

When the first version of the map was distributed to a few passengers in

1933, people demanded more. Since then, the map has been revised regularly

to add new subway lines, more information about which lines have limited

service, which stations are accessible to people using wheelchairs, and other

improvements. Other transit systems have adopted a similar approach.

Transport for London June 2016

Key to symbols Explanation of zones

Station in both zones

Station in Zone 9

Station in Zone 6

Station in Zone 5

Station in Zone 3

Station in Zone 2

Station in Zone 1

Station in Zone 4

Station in Zone 8

Station in Zone 7

Interchange stations

Step-free access from street to train

Step-free access from street to platform

National Rail

Riverboat services

Airport

Victoria Coach Station

Emirates Air Line cable car

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2 2/3

2 5

8 8 6 8

9 7 7 5 7 Special fares apply Special fares apply

Special fares apply

4 6 River Thames

Lloyd Park

Coombe Lane

King Henry’s Fieldway Drive New Addington Gravel Hill Addington

Village

Regent’s Park

Goodge

Street Bayswater

Warren Street

Aldgate

Farringdon

Barbican

Russell

Square

High Street Kensington

Old Street

Green Park

Baker Street

Notting

Hill Gate

Victoria

Mansion House

Temple

Oxford Circus

Bond

Street

Tower

Hill

Westminster

Piccadilly Circus

Charing

Cross

Holborn

Tower Gateway

Monument

Moorgate

Leicester Square St. Paul’s

Hyde Park Corner

Knightsbridge

Angel

Queensway

Marble Arch

South Kensington

Sloane

Square

Covent Garden

Liverpool Street

Great Portland Street

Bank

Chancery Lane

Lancaster Holland Gate Park

Cannon Street

Fenchurch Street

Gloucester Road St.James’s Park

Euston

Square Edgware Road

Edgware Road

Embankment

Blackfriars

Tottenham

Court Road

King’s Cross St. Pancras

Paddington Marylebone

Watford High Street

Watford Junction

Bushey

Carpenders Park

Hatch End

North Wembley

South Kenton

Kenton

Wembley Central

Kensal Green

Queen’s Park

Stonebridge Park

Bethnal Green

Cambridge Heath

London Fields

Harlesden

Willesden Junction

Headstone Lane

Harrow & Wealdstone

Kilburn Park

Warwick Avenue

Maida Vale

Euston

New Cross Gate

Imperial Wharf

Clapham

Junction

Crystal Palace Norwood Junction

Sydenham

Forest Hill

Anerley

Penge West

Honor Oak Park

Brockley

Wapping

New Cross

Queens Road Peckham

Peckham Rye

Denmark Hill

Surrey Quays

Whitechapel

Wandsworth Road

Rotherhithe

Shoreditch High Street

Haggerston

Hoxton

Shepherd’s Bush

Shadwell

Canada

Water

Fulham Broadway

West Brompton

Parsons Green

Putney Bridge

East Putney

Southelds

Wimbledon Park

Wimbledon

Kensington

(Olympia)

Aldgate

East

Bethnal Green Mile End

Dalston

Kingsland

Hackney

Wick Homerton

Hackney

Central

Rectory Road

Hackney

Downs

Theydon Bois

Epping

Debden

Loughton

Buckhurst Hill

Leytonstone

Wood Street Bruce Grove

White Hart Lane

Silver Street

Edmonton Green

Southbury

Turkey Street

Theobalds Grove

Cheshunt

Eneld Town

Stamford Hill

Bush Hill Park

Highams Park

Chingford

Leyton

Woodford

South Woodford

Snaresbrook

Hainault

Fairlop

Barkingside

Newbury Park

Stratford

Roding

Valley Grange

Hill

Chigwell

Redbridge

Gants

Hill Wanstead

Dalston Junction

Canonbury

Stepney Green

Seven Sisters

Highbury & Islington

Tottenham Hale Walthamstow Central

Clapton

St. James Street

Stoke Newington

Dagenham

East

Dagenham Heathway

Becontree

Upney

Upminster

Upminster Bridge

Hornchurch

Elm Park

Ilford

Goodmayes

Chadwell Heath

Romford

Gidea Park

Harold Wood

Sheneld

Brentwood

Seven Kings

Harringay

Green

Lanes

Wanstead Park Leytonstone

High Road

Leyton Midland Road

Emerson Park

South Tottenham

Blackhorse

Road

Barking

East Ham

Plaistow

Upton

Park

Upper Holloway

Crouch

Hill

Gospel

Oak

Bow Church

West

Ham

Bow Road

Bromleyby-Bow

Island Gardens

Greenwich

Deptford Bridge

South Quay

Crossharbour

Mudchute

Heron Quays

West India Quay

Elverson Road

Devons Road

Langdon Park

All Saints

Canary Wharf

Cutty Sark for

Maritime Greenwich

Lewisham

West Silvertown

Emirates

Royal Docks

Emirates

Greenwich Peninsula

Pontoon Dock

London City Airport

Woolwich

Arsenal

King George V

Custom House for ExCeL

Prince Regent

Royal Albert

Beckton Park

Cyprus

Beckton

Gallions Reach

Westferry Blackwall

Royal Victoria

Canning

Town

Poplar Limehouse

East

India

Stratford International

Star Lane

North Greenwich

Maryland

Manor Park

Forest Gate

Oakwood

Cockfosters

Southgate

Arnos Grove

Bounds Green

Turnpike Lane

Wood Green

Manor House

Finsbury Park

Arsenal

Kentish Town West Holloway Road

Caledonian Road

Mill Hill East

Edgware

Burnt Oak

Colindale

Hendon Central

Brent Cross

Golders Green

Hampstead

Belsize Park

Chalk Farm

Camden Town

High Barnet

Totteridge & Whetstone

Woodside Park

West Finchley

Finchley Central

East Finchley

Highgate

Archway

Tufnell Park

Kentish Town

Mornington Crescent

Camden Road Caledonian

Road & Barnsbury

Amersham

Chorleywood

Rickmansworth

Chalfont &

Latimer

Chesham

Moor Park

Croxley

Watford

Northwood

Northwood Hills

Pinner

North Harrow

Harrow- on-the-Hill

Northwick Park

Preston

Road

Wembley Park

Rayners Lane

Stanmore

Canons Park

Queensbury

Kingsbury

Neasden

Dollis Hill

Willesden Green

Swiss Cottage

Kilburn

West

Hampstead

Finchley Road

West Harrow

Uxbridge Ickenham

Hillingdon Ruislip

Ruislip Manor

Eastcote

St. John’s Wood

Heathrow Terminal 5

Heathrow Terminal 4

Northelds

Boston Manor

South

Ealing

Osterley

Hounslow Central

Hounslow East

Hounslow West

Heathrow Hatton Cross

Terminals 2&3

Perivale

Hanger Lane

Ruislip Gardens

South Ruislip

Greenford

Northolt

South Harrow

Sudbury Hill

Sudbury Town

Alperton

Park Royal

North Ealing

Ealing Broadway

West Ruislip

Ealing Common

Gunnersbury

Kew Gardens

Richmond

Acton Town

Chiswick Park Turnham

Green Stamford Brook Ravenscourt

Park West Kensington

Barons Court

Earl’s Court

Shepherd’s Bush Market

Goldhawk Road

Hammersmith

Wood Lane

White

City

Finchley Road & Frognal

Kensal

Rise Brondesbury Park

Brondesbury

Kilburn High Road South Hampstead

West Acton

North

Acton

East

Acton

Southwark

Waterloo

London

Bridge Bermondsey

Vauxhall

Lambeth North

Pimlico

Stockwell

Brixton

Elephant & Castle

Oval

Kennington

Borough

Clapham North

Clapham High Street

Clapham Common

Clapham South

Balham

Tooting Bec

Tooting Broadway

Colliers Wood

South Wimbledon

Morden

Latimer Road

Ladbroke Grove

Royal Oak

Westbourne Park

Pudding

Mill Lane

Acton Central

South Acton

Hampstead Heath

Stratford High Street

Abbey

Road

Woodgrange

Park

Walthamstow Queen’s Road

West Croydon

Beckenham Junction

Elmers End

Harrington Road

Arena

Dundonald

Road

Merton Park Woodside

Blackhorse Lane

Addiscombe

Avenue

Road

Sandilands

Wellesley

Road Reeves Corner

Mitcham Beddington Lane Ampere Way Wandle

Park

Centrale

Church Street Belgrave Walk Phipps

Bridge Morden Road Therapia

Lane Waddon

Marsh George Street

Lebanon

Road

East

Croydon

Beckenham

Road

Mitcham

Junction

Birkbeck

1. Even though the underground map has inaccuracies why is it still useful?

2. What other maps do you find useful that may have some inaccuracies? Explain.

Chapter 1: Maps and Geographic Data 25

THINK AS A GEOGRAPHER: GROUPING DATA

How people group information can emphasize certain patterns in the data. In

turn, this can influence how readers interpret it. Imagine you are creating a

map based on the data in the table.

1. If you use large dots to show cities of three million or more people in 1900 and

small dots for the other cities, what impression would the map give readers

about the relative size of cities?

2. If you use large dots to show cities of 600,000 or more people in 1900 and small

dots for the other cities, what impression would the map give readers about the

relative size of cities?

POPULATION CHANGE FOR THE LARGEST CITIES, 1900 TO 2015

City Population in

1900

Population in

2015 (estimate)

Total Change Percentage

Change

New York 3,437,202 8,550,405 +5,113,203 +149%

Chicago 1,698,575 2,720,546 +1,021,971 +60%

Philadelphia 1,293,697 1,567,442 +273,745 +21%

St. Louis 575,238 315,685 –259,553 –45%

Boston 560,892 667,137 +106,245 +19%

Baltimore 508,957 621,849 +112,892 +22%

Cleveland 381,768 388,072 +6,304 +2%

Buffalo 352,387 258,071 –94,316 –27%

San Francisco 342,782 864,816 +522,034 +152%

Cincinnati 325,902 298,550 –27,352 –8%

26 Chapter 1 Review: Maps and Geographic Data

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW:

Maps and Geographic Data

Topics 1.1–1.3

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Questions 1 and 2 refer to the map below.

0 ̊

15 ̊N

30 ̊N

45 ̊N

60 ̊N

75 ̊N

15 ̊S

30 ̊S

45 ̊S

60 ̊S

0 ̊

15 ̊N

30 ̊N

45 ̊N

60 ̊N

75 ̊N

15 ̊S

30 ̊S

45 ̊S

60 ̊S

165 ̊W 150 ̊W 135 ̊W 120 ̊W 105 ̊W 90 ̊W 75 ̊W 60 ̊W 45 ̊W 30 ̊W 15 ̊W 0 ̊ 15 ̊E 30 ̊E 45 ̊E 60 ̊E 75 ̊E 90 ̊E 105 ̊E 120 ̊E 135 ̊E 150 ̊E 165 ̊E

1. Why is the map projection shown here especially useful for navigation

on the surface of the earth?

(A) Distortion of shape is minimized.

(B) Direction is constant across the map.

(D) Area of land masses is shown accurately.

(E) It shows the sizes of bodies of water realistically.

2. Like the map above, all maps have some kind of distortion. Why?

(A) The earth’s surface is curved and a map is flat.

(B) All maps are smaller than the areas they actually represent.

(D) Maps can depict only a small number of the many details of the

earth’s surface.

(E) The world constantly changes, so maps are never current.

Chapter 1 Review: Maps and Geographic Data 27

3. Which phrase refers to the collection of geospatial data through the use

of satellite imagery?

(A) Creating a projection

(B) Gathering information through fieldwork

(D) Forming a mental map

(A) Using remote sensing

4. Which is the best example of qualitative data used by geographers?

(A) Personal descriptions of processes and events

(B) Surveys about how often people visit other places

(D) Measurements of distance made using GPS receivers

(E) Tables showing the age distribution of people in a community

Question 5 refers to the passage below.

Smartphones, each one with a tiny GPS pinging, have revolutionized

cartography. Matthew Zook, a geographer at the University of Kentucky, has

partnered with data scientists there to create what they call the DOLLY Project

(Digital OnLine Life and You)—it’s a searchable repository of every geotagged

tweet since December 2011, meaning Zook and his team have compiled billions

of interrelated sentiments, each with a latitude and longitude attached.

—Christian Rudder, “The United States of Reddit,” Slate, 2014.

5. Why are geographers interested in the information in DOLLY?

(A) It provides information about spatial distribution of people’s

reactions to events.

(B) It provides an opportunity for geographers to work with data

scientists.

(D) Geographers are more likely to use new technology than are other

scientists.

(E) The data is searchable, and most geographic information is hard to

organize.

28 Chapter 1 Review: Maps and Geographic Data

Questions 6 to 7 refer to the map below.

0 ̊

50 ̊N

40 ̊N

10 ̊W

SPAIN

Madrid

Paris

FRANCE

Barcelona

National capital

Regional capital

200 Miles

200 Kilometers

6. Which statement best describes the absolute location of Paris, France?

(A) 127 miles away from the English Channel

(B) In the Northern Hemisphere and Eastern Hemisphere

(D) The capital of France

(E) In the heart of France

7. Which statement describes the relative location of Barcelona, Spain?

(A) The capital of the Catalonia region

(B) 41 degrees north, 2 degrees east

(D) 386 miles west of Madrid and 644 miles south of Paris

(E) One of the largest cities in Spain

Chapter 1 Review: Maps and Geographic Data 29

FREE-RESPONSE QUESTION

1. Use the image of Earth at night above, your knowledge of Four-Level

Analysis, and the course skills to answer the prompts. Also refer to the

introduction discussion on verbs (page xxx) to assist you on how much

to write for each part of the question.

(A) Identify the overall scale of the Earth at night image.

(B) Describe TWO patterns on the map.

source and not quantitative.

(D) Explain ONE reason why eastern China is brighter than western

China.

(E) Explain ONE economic impact of so many people living on the

coasts of the world’s continents.

(F) Explain ONE environmental impact of so many people living on

the coasts.

(G) Describe a major limitation of using the Earth at night image to

illustrate the location of the world’s population.

30 CHAPTER 2: Spatial Concepts and Geographic Analysis

CHAPTER 2

Spatial Concepts and

Geographic Analysis

Topics 1.4–1.7

Topic 1.4 Spatial Concepts

Learning Objective: Define the major geographic concepts that illustrate spatial

relationships. (PSO-1.A)

Topic 1.5 Human-Environmental Interaction

Learning Objective: Explain how major geographic concepts illustrate spatial

relationships. (PSO-1.B)

Topic 1.6 Scales of Analysis

Learning Objectives: Define scales of analysis used by geographers. (PSO-1.C)

Explain what scales of analysis reveal. (PSO-1.D)

Topic 1.7 Regional Analysis

Learning Objective: Define different ways that geographers define regions.

(SPS-1.A)

A lot of these regional boundaries are porous and messy, allowing

for a rich diversity of cultural flow. But knowing how we interact

as part of a complex society, instead of only looking at political

borders, can explain a lot more than we might have imagined.

—Samuel Arbesman, Bloomberg.com, 2012

Source: Getty Images

Much of the Netherlands has been reclaimed from the sea. Wind turbines were built on polders

along highway A6 of the country’s west coast, and are one of the most recognizable elements of the

built environment. (See Topic 1.5 for more on how humans interact with the environment.)

1.4: Spatial concepts 31

1.4

Spatial Concepts

Essential Question: What are the major geographic concepts that

illustrate spatial relationships and patterns?

A spatial approach considers the arrangement of the phenomena being

studied across the surface of the earth. This approach focuses on things such as

location, distance, direction, orientation, flow, pattern, and interconnection. A

spatial approach also looks at elements such as the movements of people and

things, changes in places over time, and even human perceptions of space and

place. Using Four-Level Analysis from Unit 1 Overview, geographers ask and

attempt to answer questions about spatial distributions such as these:

• Why are things where they are?

• How did things become distributed as they are?

• What is changing the pattern of distribution?

• What are the implications of the spatial distribution for people?

Major Geographic Spatial Concepts

Historians look through the lens of time to understand the past. Similarly,

geographers look through the lens of space to understand place. Space is

the area between two or more phenomena or things. Space is at the heart of

geography and geographers are intensely interested in how space is arranged,

used, and reflected in people’s attitudes and beliefs.

Location

Location is an important spatial concept to geographers. (See Topic 1.1.)

Location identifies where specific phenomena are located either on a grid

system or relative to another location. The concepts of absolute and relative

location are essential to define the amount of space and relative or absolute

distance between locations. Additionally, geographers use the concepts of place,

site, and situation to further develop an understanding of a specific location.

Place

Place refers to the specific human and physical characteristics of a location. A

group of places in the same area that share a characteristic form a region. (See

Topic 1.7 for more about regions.)

Two ways to refer to place are its site and situation. Site can be described

as the characteristics at the immediate location—for example, the soil type,

climate, labor force, and human structures. In contrast, situation refers to the

32 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

location of a place relative to its surroundings and its connectivity to other

places.

The site of Riyadh, the capital and most populated city in Saudi Arabia, is a

desert climate, a large labor force, and a modern Islamic city. The city’s situation

includes being located roughly in the center of the Arabian Peninsula. The

situation of the Arabian Peninsula is between the continents of Africa and Asia

and Riyadh is connected to the world with a large modern airport. Another

example of how situation can change relates to when the interstate highway

system was created in the United States in the 1950s. The situation of many

small towns changed dramatically. Towns along old railroad lines became less

important as centers of trade, while towns along the new interstate suddenly

became more important.

Sense of Place Related to the concept of place is a sense of place. Humans

tend to perceive the characteristics of places in different ways based on their

personal beliefs. For example, the characteristics of Rome, Italy, might be

described differently by a local resident than by an outsider or by a Catholic

than by a Hindu. If a place inspires no strong emotional ties in people or lacks

uniqueness, it has placelessness.

Toponyms Finally, locations can also be designated using toponyms, or

place names. Some toponyms provide insights into the physical geography, the

history, or the culture of the location. The entire coast of Florida is dotted with

communities with “beach” in the name—Fernandina Beach, Miami Beach,

Pensacola Beach—all of which are on beaches. Iowa is named for a Native

American tribe. Pikes Peak is named for an explorer, Zebulon Pike.

Sometimes toponyms get confusing. Greenland is icier than Iceland, while

Iceland is greener than Greenland. And some toponyms are deceiving. Lake

City, Iowa, is not on a lake, and few people consider Mount Prospect, Illinois,

a mountain—at an elevation of only 665 feet above sea level. Toponyms are

often created to inspire an ideal view of a location, memorialize an event or

person, or even to express power and ownership and can be full of controversy

and disagreement. One such controversy involved the debate over the name of

the tallest mountain in the United States. Should the Alaskan mountain take

the name Mt. McKinley after the former U.S. President, William McKinley?

Or Denali, the name from the traditional Native American Koyukon language,

meaning Great One? In 2015, President Obama restored the mountain’s name

back to Denali.

Distance and Time

Distance (see Topic 1.1) can be measured in terms of absolute or relative

distance. Time-space compression is the shrinking “time-distance,” or relative

distance, between locations because of improved methods of transportation

and communication. New York City and London are separated by an ocean,

but the development of air travel greatly reduced travel time between them.

As a result, they feel much closer today than they did in the 19th century even

though the absolute distance of 3,500 miles has not changed.

1.4: Spatial concepts 33

One result of time-space compression is that global forces are influencing

culture everywhere and reducing local diversity more than ever before. In the

19th century, the mountainous regions of southeastern Europe were famous for

the local variations in their music. Today, because of radio, Internet, and other

changes, people in southeastern Europe listen to the same music as everyone

else in the world.

The Impact of Distance The increasing connection between places is

reflected in the growth of spatial interaction. Spatial interaction refers to the

contact, movement, and flow of things between locations. Connections might

be physical, such as through roads. Or they can be through information, such

as through radios or Internet service. Places with more connections will have

increased spatial interaction. Flow refers to the patterns and movement of

ideas, people, products, and other phenomena. You will learn about specific

flows in every unit and apply Four-Level Analysis to better understand the

flows of culture, migration, and trade in the world.

The friction of distance indicates that when things are farther apart, they

tend to be less connected. This inverse relationship between distance and

connection is a concept called distance decay. A clear illustration of this concept

is the weakening of a radio signal as it travels across space away from a radio

tower. Friction of distance causes the decay, or weakening, of the signal. Natural

characteristics like waves, earthquakes, and

storm systems exhibit the distance-decay

function. Human characteristics also exhibit

distance decay, although the key issue is

more accurately described as connectedness

than distance. When a new pet store opens,

its influence is strongest in the area closest to

the store but only among the pet owners who

have a connection to the store. Improvements

to infrastructure, such as transportation and

communication, have reduced the friction

of distance between places as they have

increased the spatial interaction.

Declining Influence of Distance Concepts such as accessibility and

remoteness are changing. The world is more spatially connected than ever

before in history. The Internet can be used to illustrate several of these concepts.

It allows a person living in El Paso, Texas, to shop at a store in New York City

(via its website) and receive a product shipped from a warehouse in Atlanta,

Georgia. Distance decay is less influential than it once was.

Patterns and Distribution

Patterns (see Topic 1.1) refer to the general arrangement of things being

studied, and geographers must be able to describe patterns accurately and

with precision. Geographers often use the concept of distribution, the way a

phenomenon is spread out or arranged over an area to describe patterns. Strength of Interaction 0 Distance 0

34 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

Geographers look for patterns in the distribution of phenomena across

space that give clues about causes or effects of the distribution. Common

distribution patterns include but are not limited to the following: clustered,

linear, dispersed, circular, geometric or random. (See Topic 1.1 for more on

distribution patterns.)

Matching patterns of distribution is called spatial association and

indicates that two (or more) phenomena may be related or associated with one

another. For example, the distribution of malaria matches the distribution of

the mosquito that carries it. However, just because two distributions have a

similar pattern does not mean one is necessarily the cause of the other. The

distribution of bicycle shops in a large city might be similar to the distribution

of athletic wear stores—but one probably does not cause the other. They both

might reflect the distribution of active people.

REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION

Essential Question: What are the major geographic concepts that illustrate spatial

relationships and patterns?

Geographic Spatial Concepts Use of Concepts

KEY TERMS

spatial approach

space

location

place

region

site

situation

sense of place

toponyms

time-space compression

spatial interaction

flow

friction of distance

distance decay

patterns

distribution

spatial association

1.5: Human-environmental interaction 35

1.5

Human-Environmental Interaction

Essential Question: How do human-environmental interaction and

major geographic concepts explain spatial relationships and patterns?

The dual relationship between humans and the natural world is at the heart

of human geography. The connection and exchange between them are referred

to as human-environmental interaction. Geographers who focus on how

humans influence the physical world often specialize in studying sustainability,

natural resources, land use pollution, and environmental issues. But the

environment can also have large influences on humans, so geographers also

study the impacts of this interaction and how people respond. Topics of natural

hazards, physical geography, water scarcity, poor soil, extreme climates, and a

changing climate are often discussed and analyzed.

Geographic Concepts

Human-environmental interaction can be understood through the geographic

concepts of natural resources, sustainability, and land use.

Natural Resources

The world is made up of mostly neutral matter that is of little value to people,

but that matter is considered a resource is when it becomes useful or beneficial

to people. The term natural resource includes items that occur in the natural

environment that people can use. Examples usually include air, water, oil, fish,

soil, and minerals.

Natural resources are usually classified as either renewable or non-

renewable resources. Renewable natural resources theoretically are unlimited

and will not be depleted based on use by people. Non-renewable natural

resources are limited and can be exhausted by human uses. These resources

are often discussed in terms of energy resources to power the world’s societies

but also include uses related to human consumption, agriculture, and building

materials.

The world’s natural resources are not distributed evenly—some countries

have abundant natural resources, while others have few. In addition, the level

of development of a country may influence whether a group of people can gain

access to the resources within their borders because they lack the technological

tools or finances to acquire and utilize the resources. This uneven access to

resources can have an impact on cultures, political systems, and the rate of

economic development from the local to global scale.

36 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

NATURAL RESOURCES

Renewable Natural Resources Non-Renewable Natural Resources

• Air: wind power

• Water: surface water and hydro-

electric

• Solar: sun’s energy

• Biomass: organic material from

plants and animals; examples

include wood, crops, and sewage

• Fossil fuels: from a biological origin; examples

include petroleum, natural gas, and coal

• Earth minerals: natural inorganic substances;

examples include gold, copper, and silver

• Underground fresh water: from deep aquifers

• Soil

Sustainability

Sustainability is an overarching theme of human geography and relates to

trying to use resources now in ways that allow their use in the future while

minimizing negative impacts on the environment. Sustainable development

policies attempt to solve problems stemming from natural resource depletion,

mass consumption, the effects of pollution, and the impact of climate change.

Geographers are concerned with sustainability issues because of the influence

that people have on the environment at the local, regional and global scale. An

example of a sustainable policy would be to encourage companies to increase

the use of renewable, less air-polluting energy sources and decrease the use of

non-renewable fossil fuels.

Land Use

The study of how land is utilized, modified, and organized by people is the

essence of land use. Geographers study the patterns of this land use and draw

conclusions on the reasons for the specific use and the varying impacts on the

environment, landscapes, and people. The word “environment” is usually a

reference to nature and natural things. Plants, air, water, and animals are all

part of the natural environment.

Human geographers consider the built environment, the physical

artifacts that humans have created and that form part of the landscape, in

their understanding of land use. Buildings, roads, signs, farms, and fences are

examples of the built environment.

The architectural style of buildings varies from place to place. Think of

typical homes and buildings in China, and then think of homes and buildings

in Germany. These differences occur because people with different cultures

who live in different physical landscapes will construct buildings, roads, and

other elements to create a unique built environment. Anything built by humans

is part of the cultural landscape and is in the realm of land use.

Theories of Human-Environmental Interaction

The study of how humans adapt to the environment is known as cultural

ecology. The belief that landforms and climate are the most powerful forces

shaping human behavior and societal development while ignoring the influence

1.5: Human-environmental interaction 37

of culture is called environmental determinism. In the 19th and early 20th

centuries, geographers developed a theory using environmental determinism

to argue that people in some climates were superior to those of other climates.

The theory is largely discredited because of its reliance on the use of Europe as

a case study and it does not account for the rise of non-European powers such

as China today and in the past. Additionally, the theory is usually criticized for

overstating the role of the environment in the development of and the success

or failure of a country or society.

In reaction to environmental determinism, contemporary geographers

developed a theory known as possibilism, a view that acknowledges limits on

the effects of the natural environment and focuses more on the role that human

culture plays. Different cultures may respond to the same natural environment

in diverse ways, depending on their beliefs, goals, and available technologies.

Possibilism views humans as having more power and influence over their

circumstances than the environment. Societies may face environmental

challenges of fewer natural resources or harsh environments, but people can

overcome these limitations with ingenuity and creativity.

The Netherlands, with nearly 35 percent of its land below sea level, is an

example of possibilism in action. The threat of floods and rising sea levels is a

legitimate challenge to the country. For centuries, the Dutch have developed a

water management system of dykes (dams), walls, canals, and pumps. These

developments allow low-lying land to be reclaimed from the sea (creating

polders), keeping land suitable for settlement or agriculture.

REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION

Essential Question: How do human-environmental interaction and major geo-

graphic concepts explain spatial relationships and patterns?

Human-Environmental Interaction Major Geographic Concepts

KEY TERMS

human-environmental interaction

natural resources

renewable natural resources

non-renewable natural resources

sustainability

land use

built environment

cultural landscape

cultural ecology

environmental determinism

possibilism

38 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

1.6

Scales of Analysis

Essential Question: What are scales of analysis, and what do they reveal

to geographers?

Scale of analysis, or level of generalization, allows geographers to look at

the local, regional, country, or global scale and is one of the most powerful

concepts in geography. Geographic scale, sometimes called relative scale,

refers to the area of the world being studied. For example, global scale means a

map of the entire planet, showing data that covers the whole world. In contrast,

local scale means using a map of a city or neighborhood to study local issues.

Geographers often zoom in and out of maps that use different scales in order to

see the patterns that exist at each scale. In addition, the reasons patterns exist

can often be explained differently depending on the scale of analysis. A rise in

unemployment might be shaped by global forces at a global scale or by local

forces at a local scale.

Different Scales of Analysis

Changing scale of analysis involves studying phenomena by zooming in and

zooming out in order to develop a more complete understanding of the topics

being studied. Geographers will reference a continuum of different scales

running from global, regional, national, and local. Each of these scales will

show more or less area on the map.

SCALES OF ANALYSIS

Scale Area Shown Examples

Global The entire world • Global Earth at night image

• world population density map

World Regional Multiple countries of the world • North America

• South Asia

National One country • the United States

• Thailand

National Regional A portion of a country or a

region(s) within a country

• the Midwest

• eastern China

Local A province, state, city, county,

or neighborhood

• Tennessee

• Moscow

1.6: Scales of analysis 39

Data Aggregation

While the geographic scale of a map is important, it is only half of the story.

Understanding the scale of the data is just as important. Data on maps can

also be organized, or aggregated, at different scales. Aggregation is when

geographers organize data into different scales such as by census tract, city,

county, or country. This allows the data to be more easily mapped or organized

in a chart or graph.

Importance of Scales of Analysis

Geographers seek to identify patterns, but patterns may differ depending on

the scale of analysis. In order to fully understand a topic in depth, geographers

must be able to analyze and understand the patterns and processes at multiple

scales of analysis. A world map with data aggregated by country can be used

to identify global patterns. The world is more interconnected than ever, and

looking for trends and patterns on a global scale can help geographers study

real world circumstances.

The “2019 Life Expectancy” map shows a variety of patterns of where

life expectancy is high, medium, or low. The life expectancy in most African

countries is less than 65 years, while in most of North America, the life

expectancy is more than 75 years. This is an example of using a global scale

map to describe world regional scale patterns. However, this map does not

show a complete picture of life expectancy and doesn’t allow for a local analysis

of the data.

LIFE EXPECTANCY, NORTH AMERICA, 2019

Source: ourworldindata.org

Use this map to practice Four-Level Analysis—specifically levels 1 and 2. What is the scale of the map?

What is the scale of the data? Describe a global and regional pattern visible on the map.

<50 years

55 years

60 years

65 years

70 years

75 years

80 years

>85 years

40 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

LIFE EXPECTANCY, NORTH AMERICA, 2019

Source: ourworldindata.org

This is a zoomed-in map of North America showing the world regional scale with data aggregated by

country. What are the benefits of zooming into this scale of analysis?

Zooming in to a Map and Data

If geographers want to dig deep into the data and discover patterns about the

different states, regions, or local communities of the United States, the maps

above do not work because the scale of the data is too generalized. The solution

is to find data or maps that zoom in to different scales of analysis to study the

data. Both maps below are national scale maps of the United States, but the data

is aggregated by U.S. state (left) and by county (right). Using these maps, we

can see patterns of life expectancy by regions of the United States, individual

states, or even the local scale.

According to the U.S. Center for Disease Control (CDC), the average life

expectancy in the United States for 2020 was 77.8 years but the variation of

life expectancy in the country varied greatly depending on where you live.

By zooming in farther, all the way to the neighborhood or census tract scale,

more localized patterns can be studied. If a particular neighborhood has a

much lower life expectancy, this might require a state or local government to

investigate why.

LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

What regions of the United States tend to have life expectancies above the national average? Below? What

are the benefits of using the map aggregated by counties?

<50 years

55 years

60 years

65 years

70 years

75 years

80 years

>85 years

U.S. States U.S. Census Tracts

56.9 – 75.1 75.2 – 77.5 77.6 – 79.5 79.6 – 81.6 81.7 – 97.5

1.6: Scales of analysis 41

Graphs and Other Visuals

The concept of scale of analysis can also be used on charts, graphs, or other

visualizations. The process is essentially the same for charts and graphs as it is

for maps—look at the data set and attempt to understand the data at different

scales. Graphs often show change over time, but pay attention to the scale of the

data for clues as to why the changes occurred.

The graph below shows trends in life expectancy for select countries and

the world. Part of the data is aggregated by country, while part of the data is

aggregated at the world scale. A reasonable global scale pattern description

would be that the world’s average life expectancy increased from 30 years in

1850 to over 70 years in 2015. A national scale pattern would be that U.S. life

expectancy steadily increased from 40 years in the late 1800s to nearly 80 years

in 2015. The graph below does not really support any regional or local analysis

because the data lack the detail required for these scales of analysis.

LIFE EXPECTANCY, 1770 TO 2015

Source: ourworldindata.org

When viewing images, it is also appropriate to apply scale of analysis.

Consider what is being shown in an image and the limits of what you can see in

the image. Is it a picture of a local landscape of a neighborhood, or is it showing

a larger aerial photo of an entire city or region of the world?

Different Interpretations of Data

Drawing conclusions and generalizations based on patterns in data sources is

a critical skill, but be careful with your conclusions. It is easy to draw false

conclusions, or inaccurate generalizations, that are not supported by the data

or logical reasoning. Accurate conclusions need to be supported with accurate

1770 1800

years of age

1850 1900 1950 2015

Japan

United States

China

World

Ethiopia

Source: ou1rworlddata.org

42 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

and scale-appropriate data. An example of a false conclusion would be to use

national U.S. data to support that life expectancy in your local community is

increasing. To avoid false conclusions, consider the following questions:

• Is the conclusion supported by the scale of the data?

• Is the scale of the conclusion appropriate for the scale of the data?

• Is the data accurate and trustworthy?

• Is there other data that could support or negate the conclusion?

It is possible that different interpretations of data can occur depending on

the scale of the data. Recall the graph above related to life expectancy. The

global trend of life expectancy between 1940–1950 was increasing; however,

the life expectancy of Japan during the same time frame dropped dramatically.

Which conclusion is true? Both are correct because the answers change based

on the scale and time frame of analysis. Geographers must be precise and

accurate for their conclusions to be accurate and use scale-appropriate data to

support their reasoning.

REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION

Essential Question: What are scales of analysis, and what do they reveal to

geographers?

Different Scales of Analysis Uses of Data from Each Scale

KEY TERMS

geographic scale (relative scale)

global scale

world regional scale

national scale

national regional scale

local scale

aggregation

false conclusion

1.7: Regional analysis 43

1.7

Regional Analysis

Essential Question: What are the ways geographers define regions?

Geographers often find it necessary to divide and categorize space into

smaller areal units. This regionalization process is much like how a writer

divides a book into chapters and then names (or classifies) them. Regions have

boundaries, unifying characteristics, cover space, and are created by people.

What makes identifying regions challenging is that they are often dynamic,

and the boundaries can change depending on who defines them and the scale

of analysis used. Often the boundaries of regions overlap, which can result in

tension or disagreements.

Types of Regions

Regions can exist at every scale of analysis from the local to the global.

Geographers classify regions into one of three basic types—formal, functional,

or perceptual.

Formal Regions These are sometimes called uniform regions, or

homogeneous regions, and are united by one or more traits:

• political, such as Brazil in South America

• physical, such as the Sahara, a vast desert in northern Africa

• cultural, such as southwestern Nigeria, an area where most people speak

Yoruba

• economic, such as the Gold Coast of Africa (Ghana), which exports gold

Functional Regions These regions are organized around a focal point and

are defined by an activity, usually political, social, or economic, that occurs

across the region. Functional regions or nodal regions are united by networks

of communication, transportation, and other interactions:

• Pizza delivery areas are functional regions; the pizza shop is the node.

• A state or country is a political functional region because its government

makes regulations that apply within its boundaries; the capital city is the

political node.

• An airport is a node, and the locations that flights connect form a

functional region.

A necessary part of any functional region is the flow of some phenomenon

across the networks that unite the region, whether the flow is visible (cars

delivering pizza using roads) or invisible (political and legal authority from the

capital city).

44 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

Perceptual Regions Perceptual regions differ from formal and functional

regions in that they are defined by the informal sense of place that people ascribe

to them. The boundaries of perceptual regions vary widely because people have

a different sense of what defines and unites these regions. The American South,

the Middle East, and Upstate New York are examples. While all of these regions

exist, their exact boundaries depend upon the person who is defining them.

Perceptual regions are also known as vernacular regions.

World Regions

In the same way that historians divide history into eras and periods,

geographers divide the world into regions and subregions. One type of large

region is a continent. However, dividing the world into continents is not

simple. Are Europe and Asia two continents or one? Where is the dividing line

between North and South America? Is Greenland its own continent? Notice

that all of the maps shown in this topic are global scale but the aggregation or

classifications within the maps change.

Large World Regions

The following map shows the ten large regions used in AP® Human Geography.

It includes the seven continents that are based on physical features. It also

includes three cultural regions that are based on shared languages and histories:

• Central America is part of North America, but its culture is more

influenced by Spain and Portugal than by Great Britain and France.

• Sub-Saharan Africa is distinguished from the rest of Africa.

• The Russian Federation spans eastern Europe and northern Asia.

WORLD REGIONS: A BIG PICTURE VIEW

Central

America Sub-Saharan

Africa

Russian Federation

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

INDIAN

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

SOUTHERN OCEAN

ARCTIC OCEAN

ASIA

AFRICA

ANTARCTICA

NORTH

AMERICA

SOUTH

AMERICA

EUROPE

OCEANIA

1.7: Regional analysis 45

World Subregions

Geographers divide regions into smaller areas, or subregions. A subregion

shares some characteristics with the rest of the larger region but is distinctive in

some ways. For example, the region of Latin America covers parts of North and

South America, from Mexico to Chile. Within it is the subregion of Brazil. As

in other Latin American countries, most people in Brazil are Roman Catholics.

However, Brazil’s primary language is Portuguese, which makes it unlike any

other country in the mostly Spanish-speaking Latin America. Because of its

language, Brazil is a distinct subregion.

The map below shows the standard subregions used in AP® Human

Geography. For example, Sub-Saharan Africa is subdivided into West, Central,

East, and Southern Africa. Asia is divided into five subregions: Middle East,

Central Asia, South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia.

WORLD REGIONS: A CLOSER LOOK

CANADA

UNITED

STATES

BRAZIL POLYNESIA LATIN

AMERICA

CARIBBEAN

WESTERN

EUROPE

EASTERN

EUROPE CENTRAL

ASIA EAST

ASIA

SOUTH

ASIA

SIBERIA

WEST

AFRICA

NORTH

EAST AFRICA

CENTRAL

AFRICA

SOUTHERN

AFRICA

SOUTHEAST

ASIA

MELANESIA

POLYNESIA

MICRONESIA

EAST

MIDDLE

AUSTRALIA

AFRICA

National, Subnational, and Local Regions

By changing the scale and zooming in, subregions can be even further divided.

The further subdivisions can be based on elements of physical geography—

such as climate and landform—or human geography—such as culture, politics,

or economics. Western Europe can be divided into Northwestern Europe and

Southern Europe, each unified by more specific traits. Additionally, regions can

occur at the national, subnational (within a country), or at the local scale such

as cities or counties within a state.

Since many kinds of regions exist, any one place is part of many regions or

subregions at the same time. For example, Georgia is part of numerous regions:

• a climate region based on its warm weather

• a cultural subnational region known as the South

• an economic region known as the Sun Belt

• a political region known as the United States

46 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

Problems with Regions

Regions are generalizations. Just like generalizations in spoken language, they

can lead people to overlook variations and differences. Think of the languges

spoken in the United States. On a map showing languages, the United States

is usually shown as an English-speaking country. This accurately reflects that

more than 78 percent of people in the country speak English at home and more

than 90 percent of the population speak English well.

However, showing the United States as an English-speaking country does

not tell the entire story. Some people, mostly immigrants, primarily speak a

non-English language. Far more are bilingual, speaking English and another

language comfortably. Taken together, these two groups make up approximately

20 percent of the population. As a region, the United States might be described

as English-speaking, but it is also a country where dozens of languages are

widely spoken.

Additionally, people and characteristics within a region are transitional

and often do not create a sharp boundary. Just because there is a formal

political border between the United States and Mexico does not mean that

people suddenly stop speaking Spanish or English when they cross the border.

The reality is that people who live in the borderland region on either side of

the border often speak both English and Spanish. Being aware of such realities

helps a geographer understand how complex the world is.

When regions overlap, occasionally tension and disagreements can occur.

These differences can be good-natured teasing such as when rival football

teams’ fan bases live close to each other. The differences can also be deadly

serious disagreements over territory, political power, resources, or cultural

views that have occurred in numerous hot spot locations of the world, such as

between Sudan and South Sudan.

REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION

Essential Question: What are the ways geographers define regions?

Types of Regions Characteristics of Each Region

KEY TERMS

regions

formal regions (uniform regions or

homogeneous regions)

functional regions (nodal regions)

perceptual regions (vernacular regions)

subregions

CHAPTER 2: Spatial Concepts and Geographic Analysis 47

GEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVES: THINKING ABOUT DISTANCE

Geographers use the concept of distance to study the spatial distribution of

phenomena. The perception of distance reflects context. Neighboring families

in a small town in Iowa might live 50 feet apart. To a family in a high-rise

apartment in Manhattan, 50 feet might seem like a long distance. To a family

living on a ranch in Wyoming, miles from their nearest neighbor, 50 feet might

feel uncomfortably close.

Time and Distance

In addition, what people consider a long distance changes over time. In the

mid-1800s, Irish families held funeral-like ceremonies for emigrants leaving

for the United States, Australia, and elsewhere. Trips by ship to these other

lands were so long, expensive, and dangerous that families expected they would

never see the departing person again. And they often didn’t. But what seemed

far away in the 1800s seems much closer today. A flight by jet from Dublin to

Boston takes about seven hours, costs only two days’ pay for many people, and

is remarkably safe.

Scale and Distance

A third factor shaping the perception of distance is scale. At a personal level,

eight people crowded into an elevator, separated by inches, probably feel close

together. At the community level, Tampa and Orlando seem close together,

even though they are about 85 miles apart. At the global level, the countries of

Mali and Chad seem close together, separated by only 1,500 miles.

Other Disciplines and Distance

Geographers are not alone in studying distance. Historians might research the

change over time in how immigrants viewed distance. Sociologists might focus

on how distance affects how neighbors interact. However, unlike others who

study human actions, geographers emphasize the role of distance and other

concepts that describe spatial distribution.

1. Why do people living in different locations and cultures experience and think

about distance differently?

2. How can scale of analysis change people’s view of closeness or relative

distance?

48 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP®

EDITION

THINK AS A GEOGRAPHER: GROUPING DATA

1. What characteristics could you use to create a formal region from these six

states? Explain your answer.

2. What characteristics could you use to create a functional/nodal region? Explain

your answer.

3. What characteristics could be used to create a vernacular (perceptual) region?

Explain your answer.

4. What problems are inherent in trying to classify places into regions?

SOUTH CENTRAL STATES

State Adult

Population

Whose

Primary

Language

is English

Corn

Production

(tons)

Largest

Religious

Denomination

Annual

Precipi-

tation

(inches)

Athletic

Conference

of the Largest

State University

New

Mexico

64% 2,075,000 Catholic (34%) 14.6 Mountain West

Texas 65% 5,250,000 Catholic (23%) 28.9 Big 12 (Big 12

headquarters are

in Irving, Texas)

Oklahoma 90% 255,000 Baptist (28%) 36.5 Big 12

Kansas 89% 3,145,000 Catholic (18%) 28.9 Big 12

Arkansas 93% 30,000 Baptist (27%) 50.6 Southeastern

Louisiana 91% 14,000 Catholic (26%) 60.1 Southeastern

Chapter 2 Review: Spatial Concepts and Geographic Analysis 49

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW:

Spatial Concepts and Geographic Analysis

Topics 1.4–1.7

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Question 1 refers to the following image.

1. Which best explains why the above image is considered part of the built

environment?

(A) It is found primarily in rural areas.

(B) It is often used as part of boundaries.

(D) It is part of the landscape made by humans.

(E) It is a product that was invented to solve a problem.

2. Which technology had the greatest effect on the application of the

distance-decay function?

(A) Food preservatives because they reduce decay

(B) Cars because they weakened family connections

(D) New medicines because they keep people healthier

(E) A jet because it strengthens the connections between distant places

3. The way a phenomenon is spread out or arranged over an area is

(A) density

(B) distribution

(D) interconnection

(E) distance

50 Chapter 2 Review: Spatial Concepts and Geographic Analysis

Questions 4 and 5 refer to the image below.

4. Which renewable resource is best illustrated in the image?

(A) Soil

(B) Natural gas

(D) Wind

(E) Solar

5. The use of canal, dykes (dams), pumps, and electricity to protect and

reclaim land in the Netherlands best exemplifies which theory?

(A) Environmental determinism

(B) Possibilism

(D) Distance decay

(E) Time-space compression

Questions 6 and 7 refer to the table below.

Location Life Expectancy

1950

Life Expectancy

1980

Life Expectancy

2010

World 46 61 70

Africa 37 50 59

Asia 41 60 71

Europe 62 71 76

Chapter 2 Review: Spatial Concepts and Geographic Analysis 51

6. Using the chart on the previous page, which of the following

conclusions is best supported by the data related to the period of

1950–2010?

(A) Life expectancy in most of the countries of the world has declined.

(B) Life expectancy of both France and China increased.

expectancy.

(D) Of the regions listed, Asia had the largest increase of life

expectancy.

(E) The United States and specifically New York City had the greatest

increase in life expectancy.

7. Which response best illustrates the scale of analysis being shown in the

table on the previous page?

(A) Local

(B) Regional

(D) Perceptual

(E) National

FREE-RESPONSE QUESTION

1. Geographers use regions to make sense of the world in which we live

and a variety of data sources to create regions.

(A) Explain the concept of region and how geographers use the term to

make sense of locations.

(B) Describe ONE major difference between formal and nodal regions.

develop a deeper understanding of a region.

(D) Identify TWO political regions shown on the map of Mexico on

page 10.

(E) Identify TWO physical regions shown on the map of Mexico on

page 10.

(F) Describe how quantitative spatial data is used on the map of Mexico

on page 10.

(G) Explain the type of qualitative data researchers use to develop

a better understanding of migration from Mexico to the United

States.

52 UNIT 1 REVIEW: Connecting Course Skills and Content

UNIT 1 REVIEW:

Connecting Course Skills and Content

APPLYING GEOGRAPHIC SKILLS

Applying and utilizing geographic skills are critical for success on the AP®

Exam. For each skill listed, write a one-paragraph response that illustrates

your understanding of that course skill. Support your response with specific

examples and evidence. Refer to the Unit 1 introduction (pages 3–7) for tips on

how to apply geographic skills.

1A Describe three geographic concepts, processes, models or theories

discussed in Unit 1.

2E Explain the degree to which environmental determinism fails to

adequately explain the human-environmental interaction responses.

3A Using maps, data tables and images from Unit 1, identify three

examples of quantitative data. List the page number, title, and explain

why they are each quantitative.

4B Using images or aerial photos from Unit 1, describe three patterns

presented in the visual sources.

5A Identify Unit 1 maps, data, and/or images that illustrate each of the

following scales of analysis: global, regional, national, and local.

WRITE AS A GEOGRAPHER: COMPREHEND THE PROMPT

The first step in writing a good answer to a free-response question is to

understand the question. First, note or circle the key content vocabulary used in

the question. If the prompt asks about “squatter settlements,” then your answer

should as well. Second, note the type of task verbs that are being used in the

prompt. The verbs will indicate the type of thinking and the depth and length

of your response.(See page xxx of the introduction.) Only after understanding

the prompt fully can you write an answer that includes relevant claims and

sufficient evidence, examples and reasoning to support your claims.

In the following questions, identify the key content vocabulary, the task

verb, and write how long your response should be. Do not answer the prompts.

1. Identify one consequences of rapid urbanization on the transportation system

of a region.

2. Explain how distance-decay applies to the customer base for a retail store.

3. Explain the difference between absolute location and relative location with

reference to a specific city.

4. Describe the distribution pattern of main highways in Florida.

5. Define the concept of formal region and provide a cultural example.