Philosophy

Comes from the Greek words philos (love) and sophia (wisdom), meaning "love of wisdom."

People reject new ideas that challenge their beliefs, just as prisoners refuse to accept the outside world.

Like prisoners shaped by shadows, nations act based on shared ideas and beliefs.

Reason → Seeks truth (Wisdom).

Spirit → Seeks honor (Courage).

Appetite → Seeks pleasure (Temperance).

Guardians → Wise rulers.

Auxiliaries → Soldiers and enforcers.

Workers → Farmers, builders, craftsmen.

Aristocracy → Rule by the wise.

Monarchy → Rule by a virtuous leader.

Timocracy → Rule by honor-seekers (military rule).

Oligarchy → Rule by the rich.

Democracy → Rule by the majority, driven by desires.

Tyranny → Rule by a selfish dictator.

Both aim for the highest good—ethics guides individuals, while politics guides society.

People naturally live in communities and need society to thrive.

Citizens are those who participate in government.

In a dictatorship, there are no real citizens because they have no power.

Laws should be fair, apply to everyone, and prevent corruption.

Justice ensures fairness by balancing:

• Lawfulness → Following the rules.

• Equality → Treating people fairly.

• Fairness → Giving people what they deserve.

Leaders should serve the people, not themselves.

Kingship (Monarchy) → Rule by one for the common good.

Aristocracy → Rule by the wise and virtuous.

Polity → A stable mix of democracy and oligarchy, led by the middle class.

Tyranny → Rule by one person for personal gain.

Oligarchy → Rule by the rich, benefiting only the wealthy.

Democracy → Rule by the majority, often unstable.

A community united by laws and working for the common good.

A republic, which combines:

• Monarchy → Strong leadership.

• Aristocracy → Wisdom and virtue.

• Democracy → People's participation.

Control reactions, not events.

Virtue is the highest goal.

Seek inner peace.

True happiness comes from living by moral values.

A universal moral law discovered through reason, guiding people toward justice and virtue.

Applies to everyone.

Not created by humans.

Aligns with justice and fairness.

Both come from God and cannot contradict each other.

Faith → Includes divine truths beyond human understanding (e.g., Trinity).

Reason → Uses intellect and senses to understand the world.

Ethics is about following natural law and divine law to live virtuously and achieve salvation.

Intellectual virtues → Knowledge and understanding (e.g., prudence, intelligence).

Moral virtues → Balance between extremes (e.g., courage avoids recklessness and cowardice).

Theological virtues → Faith, hope, and charity, which guide people toward God.

A gift from God that helps people achieve salvation.

Strengthens the soul to live virtuously and overcome sin.

Achieving salvation through a virtuous life in alignment with God’s will.

Monarchy → A wise and just ruler ensures order, like how the soul rules the body.

Yes, if the ruler becomes a tyrant and governs unjustly.

Legitimate authority → Only a lawful ruler can declare war.

Just cause → War must be a response to a real wrong (e.g., self-defense).

Right intention → The goal must be peace, not personal gain.

To stop evil and restore peace.

War must be fair and proportionate.

Avoid harming innocent people.

Aquinas → Based on God’s law, war is justified to correct evil.

Grotius → Based on natural law, war is justified for self-defense and justice.

Aquinas → War is about restoring moral order.

Grotius → War is about maintaining justice and legal rights.

Aquinas → Does not emphasize intervention in other states.

Grotius → A state can intervene if another government commits severe injustices.

Power → Politics is about gaining and keeping power.

Virtù → A ruler needs strength, intelligence, and adaptability.

Fortuna → Luck is unpredictable; rulers must control its effects.

Politics and morality do not always align.

A ruler must do whatever is necessary to stay in power.

The ends justify the means if they protect the state.

Maintain unity and stability in the state.

A ruler should prioritize the state's survival over personal morality.

People → Want rulers who serve the common good.

Princes → Are easier to corrupt and often seek personal gain.

Republic (Vivero Libero = Liberty) → Encourages freedom and citizen participation.

Monarchy (Vivero Sicuro = Security) → Focuses on stability but excludes citizens from decisions.

A well-ordered government where families and their shared concerns are ruled by a sovereign power.

To create conditions where people can live virtuous, thoughtful, and pious lives.

Families → The foundation of society.

Sovereign Power → The authority that governs and creates order.

Common Concern → The shared interests and responsibilities of the community.

Absolute → The sovereign has supreme authority over the state.

Perpetual → Sovereignty lasts forever and cannot be divided.

To make general laws that govern the commonwealth.

Laws created by human authority, such as parliament or a ruler.

These laws apply to all subjects in the commonwealth.

The sovereign is above human laws but must respect divine and natural laws.

Bodin → The commonwealth is ruled by an absolute sovereign to maintain order.

Cicero → The commonwealth is a shared system based on law and the common good.

A world without government where life is chaotic, full of fear, and dangerous.

“Solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

People give up some freedoms to a ruler in exchange for security and order.

Monarchy → A strong ruler is needed to maintain peace and prevent chaos.

A moral guide that tells people to respect life, liberty, and property, even without government.

Life → The right to live without threat.

Liberty → The right to act freely within the Law of Nature.

Property → The right to own and control possessions.

Legislative → Makes laws.

Executive → Enforces laws.

Federative → Handles foreign policy.

A book by Grotius that established rules for war and peace based on natural law.

Self-defense → Protecting against an attack.

Recovering what is ours → Taking back stolen property.

Punishment → Responding to serious crimes.

Actions in war must be necessary and fair.

Avoid harming civilians whenever possible.

War should aim to restore peace, not cause destruction.

Prevents one person or group from becoming too powerful.

Ensures fair governance and protects freedom.

Legislative → Makes the laws.

Executive → Enforces the laws.

Judicial → Interprets the laws (courts).

Actions are good if they make the most people happy.

The goal is to increase pleasure and reduce pain.

The government can stop people if they harm others.

The government cannot control people just because it thinks it’s “for their own good.”

Good actions come from duty, not consequences.

The only truly good thing is a good will (doing the right thing because it’s right).

Rule 1: Universal Law → Only do things you would be okay with everyone doing.

Rule 2: Respect for People → Never use people just to get what you want.

A way of thinking that moves through three steps:

• Thesis → An idea or belief.

• Antithesis → The opposite of that idea.

• Synthesis → A new understanding that combines parts of both.

The state is more than laws and power—it is an ethical community.

It helps people connect to something greater than themselves.

Society is divided into two classes:

• Capitalists (bourgeoisie) → Own businesses and wealth.

• Workers (proletariat) → Work for wages but don’t own anything.

The capitalist system is unfair because it exploits workers.

Communism will replace capitalism, creating an equal society.

A society where there is no private property, and everyone shares resources.

No rich or poor → Everyone is equal.

People work for the common good, not for profit.

The state disappears because people organize society themselves.

Marx’s idea that history is shaped by economics.

Society changes when the way people work and produce goods changes.

Primitive Communism → Small tribes share everything.

Slavery → The first class society (masters vs. slaves).

Feudalism → Nobles own land, and peasants work for them.

Capitalism → Business owners (bourgeoisie) exploit workers (proletariat).

Socialism → Workers take power and redistribute wealth.

Communism → A society with no classes and no state.

An action is good if it creates the greatest happiness for the most people.

All types of pleasure are equal.

Pleasure = Good, Pain = Bad.

Every decision should be based on how much happiness or pain it creates.

All pleasures are measured the same way (eating candy = reading a book, if both bring the same happiness).

Intensity → How strong is the pleasure?

Duration → How long does it last?

Certainty → How sure is it to happen?

Nearness → How soon will it happen?

It helps people make rational decisions by comparing different pleasures and pains.

Not all pleasures are equal → Some pleasures are better than others.

Intellectual pleasures (e.g., learning, art, love) are more valuable than physical pleasures (e.g., eating, sleeping).

People should be free to live as they choose, as long as they do not harm others.

Freedom of Thought → People can think and express any opinion, even unpopular ones.

Freedom of Action → People can live however they choose.

Freedom of Association → People can join groups and form communities.