Social Context of Computing
Social Context of Computing: Comprehensive Study Notes
This module delves into crucial aspects of computing within a broader societal framework, covering ethics, privacy, Australian laws, copyright, social networking, software responsibilities, and passwords. The objectives are to define ethics, understand online privacy limitations, recognize the ethical balance between privacy and public interest, acknowledge the role of creators/users in personal safety, comprehend Australian governmental privacy/security protections, understand copyright laws and Creative Commons, be aware of what not to share online, grasp the impact of cyber-bullying and how to address it, and learn effective password management.
Ethics
Ethics is the systematic study of moral, social, and legal issues that impact individuals or groups in society. It aims to improve societal interactions by questioning behavior relative to a given issue. It's distinct from morality, which comprises informal rules of conduct for public interaction and a judgment of good or bad behavior.
Cyberethics is a specific branch of ethics that examines how the Internet influences our moral, social, and legal systems.
Computer Ethics is a broader field that studies the general impact of computers on our moral, social, and legal systems.
The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics (by the Computer Ethics Institute, Creative Commons License):
Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people.
Thou shalt not interfere with other people's computer work.
Thou shalt not snoop around in other people's computer files.
Thou shalt not use a computer to steal.
Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness.
Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
Thou shalt not use other people's computer resources without authorization or proper compensation.
Thou shalt not appropriate other people's intellectual output.
Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you are designing.
Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for your fellow humans.
Privacy
Privacy is a fundamental human right, as articulated in Article 12 of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: "No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks."
Privacy Limitations
Despite expectations of privacy with services like webmail, cloud storage, instant messaging, and VoIP, several practical limitations exist:
Content and metadata accessibility by service providers: Technical staff and upper management of service providers (e.g., Umail, Udrive, Skype) often have access to user content (emails, messages, files) and metadata (sender, receiver, subject, file sizes). Employers' services (email/file) are also subject to this, and users should be informed. For instance, Microsoft legally accessed a former employee's Hotmail account.
Content and metadata accessibility by law enforcement and intelligence agencies:
These agencies can access data hosted in the country where the data resides and the country where the hosting corporation is incorporated. Contractors working for these agencies also gain access.
Service providers must comply with court orders (warrants) but often cooperate even without one.
Bulk data collection or automated access is common with major providers (Google, Yahoo, Microsoft), meaning agencies may already have direct access, bypassing individual requests.
Lavabit Case: Lavabit, an email service offering strong privacy, was ordered to provide bulk access to its service. The founder, Ladar Levison, chose to shut down the company rather than comply, highlighting the conflict between user privacy and government demands.
Legal action by third parties:
Content or metadata can be made available to interested third parties through legal processes.
Chevron Case: A US judge ordered Microsoft, Yahoo, and Google to hand over email metadata of approximately 100 individuals involved in an Ecuadorian environmental contamination lawsuit, at Chevron's request. Had the individuals been US citizens, the request might have been denied due to First Amendment protections.
Deletion does not guarantee removal: Deleting content (files, emails, chats) or accounts makes them unavailable to the user but they may remain archived on the system. Accounts can sometimes be reactivated years later with old content still present.
Information derivation for targeted advertising:
Service providers like Google and Yahoo use automated content scanning. Information from your content is used to select advertisements presented to you.
Example: Discussing boating via email may lead to boating-related advertisements.
This is known as behavioral or targeted advertising.
Advertisers value targeted advertising at approximately 2.7 times the value of untargeted advertising.
Advertising delivery methods include web pages, iPhone/Android/Windows 8 applications, potentially from a different service than where the content was scanned.
Methods for linking scanned content to users:
Web cookies: Encoded strings sent by websites to browsers, retained and requested by other sites. Can be purged by the browser.
Flash cookies: Similar to web cookies but use Adobe Flash, and regular browser cookie purging does not affect them.
Fingerprinting: Websites collect unique browser and hardware information for identification.
Householding: Databases link devices (mobile phones, tablets, desktops) or browsers to domestic households or business groups based on shared website visits or account access (e.g., BlueCava).
Parental implications: Parents may need to investigate teenage children's internet activities if exposed to drug or sex-related advertising.
Information gathering by applications (apps):
Many apps installed on mobile devices (Android, iPhone, tablet, Windows 8) request and collect personal data.
App stores typically disclose what an application will access.
Common data collected: phone and email contacts, call logs, location.
Recommendation: If a service is accessible via a web browser, consider using the browser on a mobile device instead of installing a dedicated app to limit data collection.
Internet Service Provider (ISP) monitoring:
At the time of writing, the Telecommunications Interception Act proposed requiring Australian ISPs to monitor email metadata and browsing history.
While its parliamentary status was unclear, Australian ISPs were understood to largely already retain this information.
Privacy vs. Public Protection
The tension between individual privacy rights and the interests of the government and public (e.g., safety, security) is a long-standing ethical issue, significantly amplified by electronic communications. This involves a continuous debate on where to draw the line between protecting personal privacy and sacrificing it for public safety.
Australian Law
Despite much internet activity involving international sites, Australian law still applies to many online actions within Australia, such as browsing and email.
Censorship and the Internet
Censorship in Australia is managed by the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA). ACMA has the authority to:
Shut down Australian websites.
Order Australian service providers to block access to websites outside Australian jurisdiction.
A clandestine list of blocked sites, known as the "black list," has been published by WikiLeaks and updated.
What is Censored in Australia?
Sites with Underaged Sex: This is the primary justification for Australian censorship, with approximately 32\% of blocked sites featuring underage sexual content.
Sites dealing with Suicide, Voluntary Euthanasia, and Drug Use: Practical discussions on these topics are banned and blocked.
Racism and Bigotry: Websites denying the Jewish Holocaust or containing anti-Semitic views are censored. Additionally, links to the Encyclopedia Dramatica article "Aboriginal" were banned, and the site blocked, due to alleged racism.
Politically Damaging Material: Material exposing government corruption has been banned and blocked, with severe penalties (imprisonment) for distribution. This includes links to the secret censorship "black list" and the shutdown of an anti-censorship site.
Discussion Points on Censorship:
Should webpages promoting violence (e.g., terrorism, bomb-making) be allowed?
Should the list of censored sites remain secret?
Should defamation rules apply to statements made on the World Wide Web?
Is insulting or degrading an individual on a webpage defamation, and should it be allowed?
Should "hate speech" (insulting or degrading a group of people) be allowed?
Would it benefit electoral constituents to monitor their elected representatives' communications?
Censorship of Video Games
Approximately 30 commercial video games are banned in Australia.
Privacy Laws
Australia has several laws protecting privacy and security:
Privacy Act 1988: This key law regulates the collection, retention, use, disclosure, and access of personal information held by government and private organizations. It was amended in 2014 to include the private sector.
Data-Matching: Commonwealth agencies, particularly those involved in revenue collection, disbursement, or law enforcement, can share information to combat fraud. The Tax File Number (TFN) serves as a unique identifier for data-matching purposes since 1991. Strict guidelines apply, usually only for preventing or detecting substantial fraud. Interpretation of these guidelines is ongoing, with efforts to maximize individual privacy protection.
According to the Federal Privacy Law site (privacy.gov.au), data-matching involves comparing data from different sources to identify individuals for further action (e.g., identifying ineligible benefit recipients or tax evaders). This poses a significant threat to personal privacy as it analyzes large numbers of people without prior suspicion.
Freedom of Information Act 1982: Defines public access to information about themselves.
Key Guidelines (voluntary but advocated for as law):
Individuals have the right to access records about themselves.
Consent must be obtained if information collected for one purpose is to be used for another.
Secret databases containing personal information should not exist.
Individuals have the right to correct erroneous personal information, with assurances of reliability and proper use.
Spam
Spam refers to unsolicited electronic communications, which are often annoying and potentially harmful.
Examples: Attempts to sell (often illegal) items without permission, phishing scams (e.g., fake banking login emails to steal details), and emails delivering malware (viruses).
Impacts: Wastes individual time, consumes electronic resources, and can damage computer systems.
Spam Act of 2003: Regulates commercial electronic messages in Australia:
Unsolicited commercial electronic messages are prohibited.
Commercial electronic messages must include sender information.
Recipients must have an option to unsubscribe from mailing lists.
Software designed to "harvest" email addresses from the Internet, and the use of lists generated by such software, are illegal.
Electronic Transactions
To foster confidence in e-commerce, the Australian government enacted the Electronic Transactions Act of 1999, protecting individuals and businesses engaging in online commercial transactions.
Legality: Electronic transactions are legally recognized in Australia.
Jurisdiction: Transactions with websites ending in ".au" are considered business within Australia, providing recourse under Australian law (e.g., warranties, consumer protection).
Liability: If you commit to an online purchase in Australia, you are legally liable to pay for it.
Information sent electronically: The following can be legally sent electronically:
Information in writing.
A signature.
A legal request to produce, provide, or retain a document.
Impersonation: It is illegal to impersonate another person in electronic communication.
Fraud Liability: You are not bound by agreements made in your name without your permission (e.g., if someone steals your credit card info and makes purchases, you are not liable).
Copyright Laws
Australian copyright law is outlined in the Copyright Act 1968, amended in 2000. It is illegal to copy copyrighted software, music, video, and other technologies.
Purpose: To ensure the efficient operation of relevant industries in the online environment by:
Allowing financial rewards for creators and investors.
Protecting copyright owners.
Facilitating the online sale of copyrighted materials.
The Australian Copyright Council website (copyright.org.au) offers easy-to-understand explanations of Australian Copyright Law.
Creative Commons
Creative Commons provides a flexible framework for creators to share their work without the complexities of traditional copyright law.
It's not a single license but a set of tools (available at creativecommons.org) allowing creators to generate custom licenses by selecting preferred conditions (attributes).
Common attributes forming a Creative Commons license include:
Attribution (BY): Requires giving credit to the creator.
ShareAlike (SA): Requires derivatives to be licensed under the same terms.
NonCommercial (NC): Prohibits commercial exploitation.
NoDerivatives (ND): Prohibits modifications or adaptations of the work.
Social Networking Sites
Social networking sites (e.g., Facebook, Google+, Qzone, Vkontakte) are immensely popular platforms used for maintaining connections with friends and family, making new friends, meeting potential partners, and supporting small businesses, especially service providers.
Legal Significance: In Australia, court notices, including summons, delivered via Facebook messages are considered legally binding.
Sharing Information on Social Networks
Users can potentially share:
Status updates (posts)
Photos and videos
Age and gender
Contacts
Interests
Address
Caution is advised as shared information has been linked to severe consequences like stalking and murder.
Information to avoid sharing:
Phone number, address, or current location: Provides stalkers with direct access and informs thieves if you are away from home (e.g., on holiday).
Employment details: Employers or co-workers might discover undesirable content. Hackers could use you to gain insider information about your company.
Credit card details: Storing credit card details for convenient online purchases poses a risk. If your login is automatic or you stay logged in, others (family members, finders of your device) could make unauthorized purchases charged to your card.
Limitations of Privacy Controls on Social Networks:
Certain information may be publicly visible by default.
Social networks can change their privacy policies at any time.
Friends can copy and repost information, bypassing your privacy settings.
Corporations or third-party applications may be able to view content you have set as private.
Cyber-Bullying
Cyber-bullying is a serious issue that can lead to depression, low self-esteem, and even suicide in victims. Studies show that 30\% of teenagers have been victims, and 86\% of lesbian or gay students have experienced it.
Bully Tactics:
Broadcasting private information (regardless of truth).
Disseminating embarrassing or altered (GIMP-ed) photographs.
Sharing secretly recorded conversations or third-party discussions about the victim.
Creating fake social networking accounts impersonating the victim.
Inventing slander attributed to the victim about their friends, isolating the victim.
Threatening the victim.
Encouraging the victim to commit suicide.
Evolution: While initially occurring via mobile phones and text messages, cyber-bullying has intensified with social networking sites. It is no longer limited to teenagers and can occur in university or workplace settings, threatening a victim's reputation and earnings.
Actions for Victims:
Talk to someone: Preferably a trusted adult or a university counselor.
Do not reply: Responding often gives the bully satisfaction and can be used against you. Nothing online is truly private, even after deletion.
Capture evidence: Record conversations or take screen captures.
Report it: Inform the social networking website or the phone company.
Report to the police: For severe cases.
Responsibilities associated with Computers and Software
Information is a highly valuable component when using computers, whether creating software or as an end-user. Businesses have a responsibility to protect private information and use it only for its intended purpose.
Ethical Scenarios for Businesses with User Data (e.g., home address, phone number for a product purchase):
Using personal information to deliver a product: Yes, Ethical.
Using personal information to market other products: Maybe, Questionable.
Selling personal information to another business without permission: No, Unethical.
Software Creators' Ethical Responsibility (Safety-Critical Systems):
Software creators are ethically responsible for ensuring their products work correctly, especially in systems that could threaten safety or life.
Companies may be liable for damages caused by their faulty products, despite common disclaimers.
Case Studies in Software Responsibility:
Intel Pentium Processor Fault (1994):
Intel released a new Pentium processor with a known, extremely rare floating-point calculation fault. Initially priced at 700.
After independent discovery and public outcry, Intel first offered replacements only to users who could prove a need for absolute precision.
This limited offer inflamed the situation, forcing Intel to replace all processors sold, costing millions of dollars.
Ethical Question: Should Intel have withheld the processor from sale upon discovering the error?
Therac-25 Machine Incidents (1985-1987):
The Therac-25, a radiation therapy machine, caused at least six severe radiation overdoses (some fatal, others permanently maiming) due to software bugs.
Investigations revealed the software was written by a single, unqualified programmer; development was poorly documented and lacked proper software engineering conventions.
Ethical Question: Who was responsible for the damage: the programmer, his managers, the company, or the hospitals using the faulty machines?
Passwords
Effective password management is critical for online security.
Use a Different Password for Each Service
This seemingly severe advice is crucial for containing security breaches.
Example 1: Single Password for All Services:
Using one password for every online service (e.g., Commonwealth Bank, Facebook, Yahoo, hobby blogs).
Risk: If any one of these sites is hacked, the single password grants access to all your connected accounts.
Creating an account on a new blog with your single password exposes your bank, Facebook, and Yahoo accounts to the blog owner and hosting employees.
Example 2: Using Social Media Login for Other Services:
Using a Facebook account to log into other services (e.g., Google Gmail, Skype) is better than a single password but still has shortcomings.
Anonymity: This method prevents anonymity, as services can access your public Facebook information.
Extensive Data Collection: Depending on permissions, services can access significant amounts of your data. For example, using Facebook login for Skype means Microsoft receives your public profile, friend list, email address, news feed, birthday, status updates, check-ins, hometown, current city, photos, videos, website, personal description, and similarly extensive data about your friends.
Use Strong Passwords
Strong passwords are essential for important accounts.
How to create a strong password:
Length: Use at least 12 characters.
Complexity: Mix lowercase and uppercase letters, digits, and punctuation characters.
Avoid: Dictionary words, personal information (phone number, address, pet's name, spouse's birthday, etc.), character sequences (e.g., "rstuv"), or repeated characters.
Ineffective: Writing a word backwards does not significantly increase strength.
Recommendation: Use randomly generated passwords.
Use a Password Manager
Strong, unique passwords are difficult to remember, especially across many services. A password manager addresses this challenge.
Function: A password manager (e.g., KeePass, a free, cross-platform option for Linux, OS X, and Windows) stores and retrieves all your passwords conveniently.
Security: You only need to remember one strong master password for the manager itself.
Features: Many password managers also include useful tools like random password generators.
Conclusion
The rapid evolution of technology continually introduces new legal, ethical, and privacy challenges for individuals, governments, and law enforcement. This fast-paced change has fundamentally transformed commerce, marketing, and the protection of online work, necessitating constant adaptation and re-evaluation of established norms and regulations.