Exam 1 SPA3101

  • Anatomical Position: Subject is always facing forward and you are looking at the subject that way
  • Medial: Toward the midline of the body, which splits the body, head-to-toe, into two halves, the left and the right
  • Lateral: Relating to the side, lying away from the median axis of the body. The lungs are lateral to the heart.
  • Anatomy: The study of the structure of organisms and the relations of their parts
  • Physiology: Science dealing with the function of living organisms
  • Anterior (ventral): in the front of the sternum is on the anterior surface of the body
  • Posterior (dorsal): in the back of the vertebrae are on the posterior surface of the body
  • Superior (cranial): toward the head – high. The eyebrows are cranial to the eye
  • Inferior (caudal): away from the head – low. The mouth is caudal to the nose
  • Superior and inferior is used together
  • Cranial and caudal is used together
  • Superior/inferior is not used together with cranial/caudal
  • Medial: toward the midline of the body.
  • Medial Example. The sternum is medial to the arm
  • Lateral: away from the midline of the body
  • Lateral Example. The hip is on the lateral surface of the body
  • Proximal: closer to any point of reference
  • Proximal Example. The knee is proximal to the foot
  • Distal: farther from any point of reference
  • Distal Example. The foot is distal to the knee
  • Superficial (external): located close or on the body surface
  • Superficial Example: The skin is superficial to the muscles
  • Deep: (internal)
  • Coronal (frontal): divides the body into anterior and posterior portions
  • Sagittal: divides the body into right and left sides
  • Transverse: horizontal cut (divides the body into superior and inferior portions)
  • Adduct: close
  • Abduct: open
  • Supine: laying face up
  • Prone: laying face down
  • Suture Line
  • Coronal Suture: Divides anterior and posterior

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  • The Cell: The basic structural and functional unit of all living things

  • Cells are: Highly organized masses of protoplasm (semifluid gel that consists of protein, CHO, Lipids, Nucleic acids and inorganic materials dispersed in water)

  • How many cells are in the human body? 100 trillion cells in the human body

  • Cell Function: Metabolism (use of food and oxygen to build or repair tissue), Excretion, Response to stimuli, Mobility

  • Cell Structure: Golgi Complex (apparatus), Organelles

  • Tissue: Colonies of cells combined together in such a manner as to exhibit functional unity

  • Cell to system order: Cell > Tissue > Organ > System

  • Types of Tissue: Epithelial, Muscular, Connective, Nervous, Vascular, Epithelial Tissue

  • The cells of epithelium form: sheets that cover the external surfaces of the body

  • Connective Tissue: Connects and binds the structures together, Supports the body systems

  • Loose connective tissue found: beneath the skin

  • Two types of connective tissue Dense connective tissue and Loose Connective Tissue

  • Areolar: forms the “bed” for skin and mucous membranes, found almost everywhere in the body

  • Adipose: Similar to areolar but has high fat content. Fatty tissue

  • Dense Connective Tissue: Collagenous + elastic fibers

  • Tendons: nonelastic fibers that connect muscle to bone

  • Ligaments: somewhat elastic fibers that connect bone to bone, bone to cartilage, or cartilage to cartilage

  • Aponeurosis: Covering muscles, connects muscle to muscle

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  • Special Connective ____: Tissue

  • Cartilage: Softer than bone, Flexible, Capable of growth, Covered by a tough fibrous membrane called perichondrium

  • Cartilage is dound in three forms: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

  • Hyaline Cartilage: Extremely strong and somewhat unmovable, Poor blood supply, Susceptible to ossification (calcification),

  • Hyaline Cartilage is very important in: studying the speech mechanism

  • Hyaline Cartilage is found in: nose, flexible ends of ribs, surfaces of bones at joints, cartilages in the larynx (thyroid and cricoid)

  • Fibrocartilage: Very strong and dense

  • Elastic cartilage: Highly flexible, Rubbery in consistency, Ossification rarely occurs

  • Elastic Cartilage is found in: Epiglottis, External part of the ear (pinna), Corniculate cartilages of the arytenoids (larynx)

  • Bone: The most important supporting structure of the body, hard (not flexible like cartilages)

  • Bone Classification: Classified by shape

  • Long bones: found in arms and legs

  • Short bones: found in the fingers

  • Flat bones: found in the skull, shoulder blades and pelvic girdle

  • Joints: The meeting of two or more bones whether there is movement or not

  • Fibrous Joints: Do not have articulatory space

  • Bones are connected by: fibers

  • Cartilaginous Joints: Do not have articulatory space

  • Bones are connected by a cartilaginous disc: cartilaginous

  • Spinous process: The spinous process is a piece of bone that comes off the back of the lamina at every level. It provides an attachment for muscles. When you feel down someone's back, the spinous processes are the bony bits that you can feel in the middle of their spine.

  • Intervertebral disk

  • Symphysis: a place where two bones are closely joined, either forming an immovable joint (as between the pubic bones in the center of the pelvis) or completely fused (as at the midline of the lower jaw). (oxford dictionary)

  • Synovial Joints: also known as diarthrosis, joins bones or cartilage with a fibrous joint capsule that is continuous with the periosteum of the joined bones, constitutes the outer boundary of a synovial cavity, and surrounds the bones' articulating surfaces. (Wikipedia)

  • Ball and socket: Consists of a rounded ball-like end of bone that fits into a cup-like cavity in another bone, Movable around a great number of axes

  • Ball and socket joint examples: hip joint, shoulder joint

  • Finger Joint: Simple Synovial Joint. Has a fibrous membrane and synovial cavity

  • Hinge Joint: Permits movement in one plane (flexion and extension)

  • Hinge Joint Examples: elbow joint

  • Ellipsoid-condyloid Joint: An oval-shaped articular facet fits into an elliptical-shaped cavity

  • Ellipsoid-condyloid joint: Permits movement in all directions except rotation

  • Ellipsoid-condyloid joint Examples: temporo-mandibular joint (T-M)

  • Muscle-Tissue: Striated (skeletal): often called voluntary muscle, attachments mainly to the skeletal system (supplied by Peripheral Nervous System- PNS)

  • Smooth (visceral): involuntary organs such as stomach and intestines, blood vessels, and bronchial tubes (autonomic nervous system)

  • ardiac: found only in the heart

  • Muscle Cell: The smallest functional unit of the muscle tissue

  • Muscle Activity: A muscle does only 2 things. it contracts (shortens) and relaxes (returns to the original position

  • Contracts- shortens

  • Relaxes- returns to the original position

  • Action Potential: Every cell has its equilibrium potential

  • Action Potential: a sudden large change in the cell polarity that causes a wave of depolarization

  • Myosin and actin: molecules inside muscle fiber that control contractions

  • ATP (produced by mitochondria) is an energy source that is added during muscle contraction so myosin and actin can react. Adenosine Triphosphate

  • All or None Law: Each fiber contracts maximally or not at all

  • Constant muscular contraction: always on

  • Isometric: contracts a muscle, tension changes but length does not

  • Isotonic: muscle shortens upon contraction but tension does not change

  • What causes isotonic contractions: Sliding activity of myosin and actin

  • Origin: place of attachment of a muscle which remains fixed during contraction

  • Insertion: area of attachment of muscle to bone. It moves, more flexible

  • Contraction- decreases the distance between origin and insertion

  • Agonists: muscles work together

  • Antagonists- muscles that produce opposite movement

  • Synergist: act around a moveable joint to produce motion similar to or in concert with agonist muscles. They often act to reduce excessive force generated by the agonist muscle and are referred to as neutralizers. (Med Libre Texts)

  • Nervous Tissue: monitors and regulates the functions of the body. consists of two cells- nerve cells or neurons and glial cells, which helps transmit nerve impulses and also provides nutrients to neurons. (Byjus)

  • Organs: When two or more tissues combine in such a manner as to exhibit functional unity, Performs a special function

  • Systems: 11 systems 5 of which are of importance to our class. Nervous, skeletal, articular, muscular-movement, urinary, reproductive, endocrine, integumentary, respiration

  • Nervous system: brain and spinal cord

  • Respiratory: breathing system

  • Skeletal: structural support system

  • Articular: articulation system

  • Muscular- movement: muscle movement system

  • Urinary: urinary system

  • Reproductive: reproductive system

  • Endocrine: hormones

  • Interaugmentary: Outer layer of the body

  • Respiration: Breathing

  • Biological function example: Exchanging gas in the body

  • Speech function example : Power supply to stimulate/vibrate the vocal folds. The power supply for stimulating vocal folds and producing voice

  • Inhalation: air is taken through respiratory tract to lungs and held there until oxygen replaces carbon dioxide

  • Expiration: expulsion of carbon dioxide through tract out into atmosphere

  • Boyle’s law: inverse relationship between pressure and volume given a constant temperature

  • Speech: breathe in, increase volume, decrease pressur of air which is related to how long we can talk. We want to speak on exhalation so we have to increase pressure to expel air

  • Respiratory Tract in descending order: nasal and oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

  • Larynx: Divides the airway into upper and low respiratory tracts

  • Trachea: 16-20 horse shoe shaped rings (hyaline cartilage); incomplete in the back; lies directly next to the esophagus

  • The trachea has these many membranes: three membranes

  • Fibrous membrane: outer cover of the t-rings

  • Trachea artilage: First cartilage attaches to the larynx and the last cartilage bifurcates; separates

  • Bifurcates: separates

  • Mucous membrane: an (oxford)epithelial tissue which secretes mucus, and lines many body cavities and tubular organs including the gut and respiratory passages.

  • Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

  • Cilia: protective

  • Mucous: soft tissue that lines the body's canals and organs in the digestive, respiratory and reproductive systems. It's also called the mucous membrane. Mucosa has three layers: epithelium, lamina propria and muscularis mucosae. It plays an important part in immunity. (Cleveland Clinic)

  • What is the function of mucous?: ubricates and protects these organs and cavities from abrasive particles and bodily fluids, as well as invasive pathogens. (Cleveland Clinic)

  • Where do we have the most mucous producing cells?

  • Tracheotomy: Surgical incision 1 cm below the cricoid cartilage (the first tracheal ring)

  • Tracheostoma: opening in trachea

  • Why is the tracheostoma procedure performed?: It provides an air passage to help you breathe when the usual route for breathing is somehow blocked or reduced. It’s often needed when health problems require long-term use of a machine (ventilator) to help you breathe. (Mayo Clinic)

  • Bronchi: Tubes that go from the tracahea to the lungs

  • Arborize: become the bronchial tree; bronchioles

  • Right bronchi is ____: larger

  • The right bronchi is larger than the left bronchi. Why is this clinically significant?: the right lung has three lobes, while the left has only two lobes

  • The Lungs: 2 cone shaped structures, spongy and elastic mass

  • Lungs are ____ when the vocal folds do something: airtight

  • Made of highly elastic material and very little smooth muscles

  • Lungs rely on: active muscle/thoracic contractions, lungs themselves are passive

  • Lungs themselves are ____: passive

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  • Right phrenic nerve: Passes lateral to the right brachiocephalic vein and the superior vena cava. Runs anterior to the hilum of the right lung. Passes along the fibrous pericardium of the right atrium and pierces the diaphragm near the inferior vena cava opening. (Ken Hub)

  • Mediastinum: a membranous partition between two body cavities or two parts of an organ, especially that between the lungs. (Oxford)

  • Pleura: each of a pair of serous membranes lining the thorax and enveloping the lungs in humans and other mammals.

  • serous membrane: a mesothelial tissue which lines certain internal cavities of the body, forming a smooth, transparent, two-layered membrane lubricated by a fluid derived from serum. The peritoneum, pericardium, and pleura are serous membranes. (Oxford)

  • Visceral pleura: coats lungs

  • Parietal (costal) pleura: coats thoracic cavity

  • Interpleura space: lines inner walls of thoracic cavity and lungs (Important in taking in air)

  • Apical pleura: thickening in the top portion of the lung. Unilateral pleural thickening means the condition affects either the left or right lung. Bilateral affects both lungs.(mesothelioma center)

  • Costal pleura: the pleural portion covering the inner surfaces of the rib cage, and is separated from the ribs/cartilages and intercostal muscles by the endothoracic fascia.

  • Visceral pleura: covers the lungs and interlobar fissures

  • Mediastinal pleura: The thin membrane that lines the chest cavity in the area between the lungs (NCI Dictionary)

  • Diaphragmatic pleura: the portion covering the convex upper surface of the diaphragm. Its junction with the costal pleura at the diaphragmatic margin is a sharp gutter known as the costodiaphragmatic recess, which has diagnostic significance on plain radiography. (Wikipedia)

  • Parietal pleura: lines the thoracic wall and superior surface of the diaphragm. It continues around the heart forming the lateral walls of the mediastinum. The pleura extends over the surface of the lungs as the visceral pleura. The surface tension of the fluid in the pleural cavity secures the pleura together. (NCBI)

  • Diaphragm: located below the lungs, is the major muscle of respiration. It is a large, dome-shaped muscle that contracts rhythmically and continually, and most of the time, involuntarily. Upon inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens and the chest cavity enlarges. (medline plus)

  • Function of pleura: protects and cushions the lungs. This tissue secretes a small amount of fluid that acts as a lubricant, allowing the lungs to move smoothly in the chest cavity while breathing. (NCI)

  • Friction free: lungs and thoracic surface

  • Pleurisy: pain during inhalation, lack of moist something

  • The skeleton: The framework of the body, which consists of bones and cartilage. Has joints or articulations by which the limbs are able to move.

  • The right has ____ lung tissue than the left: more

  • Smaller in exhalation ____ in inhalation: bigger

  • ___ and ___ pleura: costal and parietal

  • costal pleura: the pleural portion covering the inner surfaces of the rib cage, and is separated from the ribs/cartilages and intercostal muscles by the endothoracic fascia. (Wikipedia)

  • Parietal pleura: lines the thoracic wall and superior surface of the diaphragm. It continues around the heart forming the lateral walls of the mediastinum. The pleura extends over the surface of the lungs as the visceral pleura. The surface tension of the fluid in the pleural cavity secures the pleura together. (NCBI)

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  • Ears are ___ to eyes: lateral
  • Foot is ___ to knee: distal
  • Knee is ___ to foot: proximal
  • Superficial (external): located close or on the body surface
  • Superficial Ex: The skin is superficial to the muscles
  • Deep (internal): Further beneath the body surface.
  • Deep Ex: The muscles are deep to the skin
  • Coronal (frontal): divides the body into anterior and posterior portions
  • Sagittal: divides the body into right and left sides
  • Transverse: horizontal cut (divides the body into superior and inferior portions)
  • Adduct: close
  • Abduct: open
  • Supine: laying face up
  • Prone: laying face down
  • Ventral or ____: anterior
  • Dorsal or ____: posterior
  • Cranial or ___: superior
  • Caudal or ____: inferior
  • Coronal plane: facing sideways
  • Sagittal plane: frontwards facing
  • Proximal: closer to any point of reference
  • Proximal Ex: The knee is proximal to the foot
  • Distal: Farther from any point of reference
  • Distal Ex: The foot is distal to the knee
  • Anterior (ventral: in front of the sternum is on the anterior surface of the body
  • Posterior (dorsal): in the back of the vertebrae are on the posterior surface of the body
  • Superior (cranial): toward the head - high.
  • Superior (cranial) example: The eyebrows are cranial to the eye
  • Inferior (caudal): away from the head - low.
  • Inferior (caudal) example: the mouth is caudal to the nose

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Video Resources:

  https://youtu.be/t6-ueqFK1IE