Motor Development test 1 chapters 1-4
Chapter 1
Changes in characteristics of Motor Development
Changes in movement behavior
Continuous
Age related
Sequential
Depends on underlying process
Related areas of study
Motor learning: relatively permanent gains in motor skill capability associated with practice or experience
Motor control: the neural, physical, and behavioral aspects of movement
Related terms
Physical growth: quantitative increase in size or body mass
Physical maturation: qualitative advance in biological makeup; cell, organ, or system advancement in biochemical composition
Aging: process occurring with passage of time, leading to loss of adaptability or full function and eventually to death
Defining Motor Development
Identify similarities and differences between motor development and the following phenomena:
Motor learning
Motor control
Physical growth and maturation
Adolph and Hoch’s features of infant motor development
Motor development is
Embodied
Embedded
Enculturated
Enabling
Constraints
Discourage or limit certain movements
Encourage or permit other movements
“Shape” movements
Channel away from some movements while toward others
Individual Constraints
Unique physical and mental characteristics
internal
Structural: related to the body’s structure
Height
Muscle mass
Functional: related to behavioral function
Attention
Motivation
Environmental constraints
Properties of the environment
external
Global, not task specific
Physical
Gravity
Surfaces
Sociocultural
Gender roles
Cultural norms
Task Constraints
Specific task requirements or goals
External
Not related to individual
Related specifically to task or skills
Goal or task
Rules guiding task performance
Equipment
Interaction of constraints
Must identify individual and environmental and task constraints
Must examine interactions among constraints
Relationship Between the Model of Constraints and the Features of Motor Development
Individual constraints reflect the embodied nature of motor development
Environmental constraints reflect the movement is embedded and enculturated
Since new skills allow for task constraints to change and for other new skills to be acquired, motor development is enabling
Constraints and Atypical Development
Disabilities: differences in structural or functional individual constraints
Must consider all interacting constraints
May result in delayed, different motor development
In the extreme may arrest development , and nit further change is observed
Picturing Change
We can plot the change in behavior over time or age
time or age on the horizontal axis
behavior on the vertical axis, with “more advanced” at top
These curves are sometimes called developmental trajectories
Changing Developmental Trajectories
An early constraint or influence can change then developmental trajectory for the remainder of development
Seefeldt (1980) proposed a proficiency barrier
if the barrier isn’t crossed by a certain age subsequent development would be difficult
this impacts the development trajectory
Research Designs in motor development
Longitudinal
an individual or group is observed over time
the study can require lengthy observation
Cross-sectional
individuals or groups of different ages are observed
change is inferred, not actually observed
Sequential or mixed longitudinal: mini-longitudinal studies with overlapping ages.
Additional Research Methods
Meta-analysis
Statistical technique integrated the effects observed in many studies into one or more generalizable estimate of an effect
Review paper
Many studies on a topic are compared and contrasted
Review and meta-analysis are sometimes combined
Analysis of “big data”
A Paradox in Development
Universality: Individuals in a species show great similarity in development.
Variability: Individual differences exist.
Disability: Constraints and Atypical Development
Individuals with disabilities have delayed and different development compared to the average.
Differences in individual constraints, both structural and functional, can lead to atypical developmental trajectories.
Practitioners may adjust environmental and task constraints to accommodate differences in individual constraints
Summary and Synthesis
Motor development examines continuous, sequential, age-related change in motor behavior.
Individual, environmental, and task constraints underlie this change.
Researchers use longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential research designs to investigate this change.
Chapter 2- Theoretical Perspectives in Motor Development
Theories of Motor Development
Maturational perspective
Information processing perspective
Ecological perspectiveMaturational Perspective
Motor development driven by maturation of systems (nature)
Specifically, the central nervous system
Minimal influence of environment
Characteristics of motor development
Qualitative
Discontinuous
History of the Maturational Perspective
1930s: Gesell, McGraw
Suggested invariable, genetically determined sequence of development (individuals can have unique timing)
Research: co-twin control strategyMaturationists’ Interest in Process
McGraw (1935) associated motor behavior changes with development of the nervous system.
McGraw posited that advancement in the central nervous system triggers the appearance of a new skill.
Long-Lasting Beliefs From Maturation Theory
Basic motor skills emerge automatically.
There is no need for special training.
Mild deprivation does not arrest development.
The nervous system is the most important.
Descriptive Methodology in Motor Development
Characteristic of maturational perspective
Used from 1940s to 1970s
Normative
Use of quantitative scores to describe children’s average performance (e.g., Espenschade, Glassow, Rarick)
Biomechanical
Use of biomechanical descriptions of movement patterns in fundamental skills (e.g., Glassow, Halverson)
How Would a Maturational Theorist Explain the Following?
Toddler learning to walk
Child riding a bike
Teenager having difficulty swimming
Information Processing Perspective
Motor development is driven by external processes (nurture).
Basic tenet: The brain acts like a computer.
The passive human responds to stimuli in the environment. Important concepts: input, encoding, processing, feedback
Young adults are often studied first as a basis of comparison for performance of children and older adults.
Perceptual-Motor Development
A subfield exists within the framework of information processing.
Early work (1960s) tried to link learning disabilities to delayed perceptual-motor development.
How Would an Information Processing Theorist Explain the Following?
Toddler learning to walk
Child riding a bike
Teenager having difficulty swimming
Ecological Perspective
Development is driven by the interrelationship of individual, environment, and task (importance of multiple systems).
The neural system is one of many responsible for action.
There are two branches:
1. Dynamical systems
2. Perception–action
Dynamical Systems
Theory was advocated in the early 1980s by Kugler, Kelso, and Turvey (among others).
Body systems spontaneously self-organize (not driven solely by CNS).
Body systems, the performer’s environment, and task demands interact.
Some systems (rate limiters) may develop more slowly in the young or degrade faster in the old and thus control the rate of development or change.
Development is characterized by qualitative and discontinuous change.
Change occurs across the life span.
Perception–Action
Theory is based on the work of Gibson (1960s and 1970s).
Action is not only a response to a perception but also that actions generate perception and the link between them is strengthened.
Affordance is the function an environmental object provides to an individual.
Characteristics define objects’ meanings.
Object functions are based on individuals’ intrinsic dimensions (i.e., are body scaled) rather than the object’s extrinsic, objective dimensions.
Ecological Perspective
Both branches reject the CNS as executive controller of nearly limitless opportunities for movement.
Control is distributed throughout the body at both global and local levels.
This challenging perspective allows for new types of experiments and new ways of thinking about old questions.
How Would an Ecological Perspective Theorist Explain the Following?
Toddler learning to walk
Child riding a bike
Teenager having difficulty swimming
Current Interests
Developmental systems approach focusing on all developing systems and subsystems
Developmental motor neurosciences approach focusing on development of brain-behavior relationships
Developmental health approach focusing on interrelationships among weight status, physical activity, perceived and actual motor proficiency, and fitness
Developmental Health Approach
Stodden et al. (2008) model involving skill competence, activity, physical fitness, and weight status generated new research.
Robinson et al. (2015) examined the validity of parts of the model and stimulated more research.
Barnett et al. (2021) conducted a systematic review of research since 2015.
Discussed in more detail in Chapter 12.
Disability: Which Theoretical Perspective?
Green & Lavesson (2019) suggested an ecological perspective.
Understand individuals with disabilities within varying contexts and cultures
Disabilities as individual structural and functional constraints
Summary and Synthesis
Different theoretical perspectives of motor development have emerged over time.
Although each perspective is unique, there are often benefits to viewing motor development from different perspectives.
The maturational perspective has had a lasting impact on how changes in motor development occur; however, the ecological perspective is now more widely used by researchers.
Chapter 3- Principals of Motion and Stability
Understanding Motion & Stability
Certain physical laws of motion limit movement
Consider gravity and how constraints interact with objects’ movements
What are some behaviors that encourage gravity?
Developmental Changes Are Predictable
Changes …
are based on optimizing biomechanical principles of motion and stability over time; can be seen across a variety of motor skills; and often produce more force, velocity, or accuracy.
Motion and Stability
Developmental changes in movement occur according to biomechanical principles
Motion and stability are two principles within the larger field of biomechanics
Motion and stability are known as the “physics” of movement
Newton’s First Law
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion until acted upon by a force.
Inertia: resistance to motion, related to mass.
Momentum = mass X velocity.
When a force is exerted on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction of the force.
Newton’s First Law, Simplified
We must exert force to move objects, and move ourselves.
More inertia means that
it is harder to move, and
more force application is required.
Newton’s First Law:
Child Learns to Swing a Bat
What must the child learn about inertia?
What must the child learn about momentum?
To Move an Object Farther or Faster
Increase force delivered to object.
Increase distance over which force is applied.
Newton’s Second Law
An object’s force (F) is related to mass (m) and acceleration(a).
F = m × a
An object’s acceleration is related to force applied and inversely related to mass.
a = F / m
People can only generate a certain amount of force with their arm when they throw.
Given this peak force level, how could you increase acceleration when throwing a ball?
Newton’s Third Law
To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
When you push on something, it pushes back on you!
Oppositional movements and directional force
Increasing Velocity:
Rotating Limbs and Projected Objects
Increase rotational velocity (swing it faster).
Increase relative length (fully extend it at release or contact).
Force and Time
To make an object move, increase force application for a given time.
Example: karate chop to bricks
To make an object stop, increase time over which a given force is applied.
Example: soft landing in gymnastics
Stability and Balance
Stability: ability to resist movement
Balance: ability to maintain equilibrium
Stability–mobility trade-off
Increasing Stability
Increase base of support.
Lower center of gravity.
Increasing Balance
Increase stability.
Improve strength, coordination, and proprioception.
The Stability–Mobility Trade-Off
New movers adopt stability strategies that maximize stability and balance but hinder quick movement.
With development and improvement in ability to maintain
upright posture during movement, movers shift to mobility strategies so they can move faster.
Detecting and Correcting Errors
Carr’s five-step process for observing and analyzing skill performance (1997)
1. Observe the complex skill.
2. Analyze each phase and its key elements.
3. Use your knowledge of mechanics in your analysis.
4. Select errors to be corrected.
5. Decide on appropriate methods for the correction of errors.
Summary and Synthesis
Motion and stability are two principles of biomechanics that act as constraints that govern how an individual interacts with the environment when performing a task.
An understanding and movement experiences with motion and stability can lead to better control and performance of motor skills.
Stability and balance are two mechanical principles involved in efficient and skilled movement.
Chapter 4- Early Motor Development
Early Motor Behavior
Two types
Spontaneous: movements not caused by known external stimuli
Reflexive: stereotypical responses elicited by specific external stimuli (Clark, 1995)
The Purpose of Spontaneous Movements
Original theory: extraneous, no purpose
Current theory: building blocks, similar to some voluntary movements
Examples
Spontaneous arm movements (resemble reaching)
Spontaneous kicking (resembles adult walking)
Infantile Reflexes
Reflexive movements occur quickly after onset of stimuli.
They involve a single muscle or a specific group of muscles (not whole body).
They cannot be extinguished at any one time.
Persistence past normal age may indicate neurological problems.
The Purposes of Reflexes
Built-in responses facilitate survival.
Allow “dialogue” with environment.
Result in sensory consequences (adaptation).
Provide building blocks for future movement.
Grasp and STNR
Palmar grasp reflex
Stimulus: Touch palm with finger or object.
Response: Hand closes tightly around finger or object.
Symmetrical tonic neck reflex
Infant starts in supported sitting position.
Stimulus: Extend head and neck or flex head and neck.
Response: Arms extend and legs flex, or arms flex and legs extend.
Moro Reflex and Labyrinthine Righting
Moro Reflex
Infant starts in supine position.
Stimulus: Shake head (e.g., by tapping pillow).
Response: Arms, legs, and fingers extend, then arms and legs flex.
Labyrinthine Righting Reflex (see next slide)
Infant is supported upright.
Stimulus: Tilt infant.
Response: Head moves to stay upright.
Constraints
What constraints exist during the reflexive period?
Structural
Functional
Environmental physical
Environmental sociocultural
Task: goals, rules, equipment
Later Infancy
Voluntary control of movements begins.
Understanding of environment, objects in environment
Meaningful interactions with others
Postural reactions
Postural Reactions
Postural reactions begin around 4 months.
Help maintain posture in a changing environment
Initially similar to reflexes, ultimately incorporated into general movement repertoire
More Postural Reactions
Derotative righting
Infant starts in supine position.
Stimulus: Turn head to one side, or turn legs and pelvis to other side.
Response: Body follows head in rotation, or trunk and head follow in rotation.
Parachute
Infant is held upright.
Stimulus: Lower infant toward ground rapidly.
Response: Legs and arms extend.
Motor Milestones
Fundamental motor skills
Building blocks (leading to complex motor skills)
Cumulative, sequential
Specific movements that lead to general actions
Rate Limiters, or Controllers
Rate limiters are individual constraints that inhibit or slow attainment of a motor skill.
They rapidly change during early childhood.
Cultural norms can shape social interactions between
infants and others and guide parental child-rearing practices.
Motor Milestones and Atypical Development
Trained professionals can screen for neurological health and the potential for future diseases or disorders by looking for delays.
Hypotonia, which is common in Down syndrome, can often result in delays of milestone skills.
Delays in infant mobility could negatively affect cognitive and perceptual development.
Development of Postural Control and Balance in Infancy
Rate limiters for posture and balance appear to involve coupling of sensory information and motor responses.
Infants continuously calibrate sensory motor responses. (Chen, Metcalfe, Jeka, & Clark, 2007)
Summary and Synthesis
The appearance and disappearance of infant reflexes are a part of typical development.
Reflexes often appear in a relatively predictable sequence and time frame during typical development.
It is important to always keep in mind the presence of individual variability in all aspects of development.