Untitled Flashcards Set

Here's your organized set of notes: 

History of Psychology 

• Ancient Roots: Psychology is considered one of the oldest disciplines, with roots tracing back to ancient Greek philosophy. 

• Shift to Science (200 years ago): About 200 years ago, the application of scientific methods to human nature questions marked a major transformation in psychology. Before this, psychology was more aligned with philosophy. 

• Wilhelm Wundt (1879):  

  • Established the first psychology laboratory. 

  • This marks the development of modern psychology. 

  • Promoted systematic experimentation to study the human mind. 

Unique Aspects of Psychology 

• Historical Teaching: Unlike most sciences, psychology includes the study of its history as part of its curriculum. 

• Fragmentation: Psychology is fragmented into diverse areas, but understanding its history helps bind these areas together and offers insight into its current nature. 

• Relevance of Classic Studies: Many classic experiments and ideas from the past remain relevant and true today. 

• Scientific Approach: Psychology adopted the scientific method from other successful sciences to address questions about human nature. 

Evolution of Psychology 

• Voluntarism (First School of Thought) – 1879:  

  • Focused on explaining conscious experiences. 

  • Wilhelm Wundt's key contribution: Promoted psychology as a science. 

• Structuralism (Building Blocks of Consciousness) – 1892:  

  • Focused on breaking down conscious experiences into basic elements. 

  • Led by Edward Titchener. 

• Functionalism (Function of Consciousness) – 1900:  

  • Focused on the function of consciousness, influenced by William James. 

  • Transitioned to applied psychology, emphasizing practical applications. 

• Behaviorism (Prediction & Control of Behavior) – 1913:  

  • Focused on objective measurement and control of behavior. 

  • Still a relevant school of thought today. 

• Gestalt Psychology:  

  • Argued that conscious experience is more than the sum of its parts. 

  • Absorbed into mainstream psychology. 

• Psychoanalysis:  

  • Founded by Sigmund Freud, focused on unconscious processes and childhood experiences. 

• Humanistic Psychology (Uniqueness of Humans) – 1950:  

  • Focused on personal growth, with key figures like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. 

  • Remerged in modern psychology as positive psychology. 

• Cognitive Psychology (Conscious Processes) – 1960:  

  • Focused on understanding conscious experiences and mental processes. 

Schools of Thought 

• What is a School of Thought?  

  • A group of psychologists ideologically aligned with a leader's ideas. 

  • Movements are shaped by contextual forces, including philosophical, social, and economic factors. 

• Social Forces Example:  

  • Behaviorism gained popularity due to its alignment with societal goals and offering hope for controlling behavior. 

What Can We Learn from Studying History? 

• Integration of Modern Psychology: Understanding psychology’s history helps integrate its fragmented areas. 

• Origins & Ideas: By studying its origins, we can better understand modern psychological theories and practices. 

Data of History vs. Data of Science 

• History Data:  

  • Historians work with already generated data, such as letters, diaries, photographs, and interviews. 

  • These data were created under uncontrolled conditions, making replication impossible. 

  • The selection of data can show bias. 

• Scientific Data:  

  • Uses controlled experiments and replicable data to draw conclusions. 

Distortion of Historical Data 

• Loss of Data: Certain data may be lost over time. 

• Suppressed Data: Data may be minimized or concealed to protect reputations, e.g., Freud's use of cocaine. 

• Translation Issues: Misinterpretations can occur when ideas are translated between languages. 

• Self-Serving Data: Data may be selectively presented to fit personal ideas or theories. 

Theories of Historical Writing 

• Personalistic Theory:  

  • Argues that history is shaped by the intellect, will, and charisma of unique individuals. 

  • Preferred method of writing: Biography. 

• Naturalistic Theory:  

  • Focuses on contextual forces (e.g., social, political, or scientific environments) shaping history. 

 Here are your organized notes for Chapter 2: 

Determinism and Reductionism 

• Determinism:  

  • Belief that every act is determined or caused by past events. 

  • Predicts changes because we understand how its parts function in an orderly and regular way. 

• Reductionism:  

  • Explains phenomena on one level in terms of phenomena on another level. 

  • The idea that analyzing or reducing a system to its simplest parts helps understand it. 

People as Machines 

• Automata:  

  • The concept that human functioning and behavior are governed by mechanical laws. 

  • This laid the foundation for applying experimental and quantitative methods to human nature. 

• 17th–19th Centuries:  

  • Bodies were viewed as machines, and human life was subject to mechanical laws. 

  • The scientific outlook dominated this period. 

Empiricism 

• Empiricism:  

  • Knowledge is derived from sensory experience and observation of nature. 

  • All knowledge comes from experience. 

Rene Descartes 

• Before Descartes:  

  • The mind-body interaction was thought to flow one way—mind influences body, but body doesn't influence mind. 

• Descartes’ Theory:  

  • The mind influences the body, but the body exerts a greater influence on the mind than previously thought. 

  • Functions once attributed to the mind were considered functions of the body. 

  • The mind is responsible for thought, while reproduction, perception, and movement are functions of the body. 

  • Shifts inquiry from metaphysical analysis to objective observation and experimentation. 

  • Descartes proposed that the body is like a machine, governed by mechanical laws of space. 

  • Introduced the reflex action theory: Involuntary responses to external stimuli, without thought or cognitive processes. 

  • Suggested human behavior is predictable and operates as a machine if the inputs are known. 

  • Pineal Gland: Believed the mind and body interacted through this part of the brain. 

  • Innate vs. Derived Ideas:  

    • Derived ideas: Produced by external stimuli. 

    • Innate ideas: Arise from the mind or consciousness, independent of external stimuli. 

Positivism and Materialism 

• Positivism:  

  • Only natural phenomena or facts that are objectively observable should be recognized. 

• Materialism:  

  • The universe is explained in physical terms through the existence and nature of matter. 

  • The mind is not a separate entity and doesn't have physical properties like matter. 

John Locke 

• Locke's Theory:  

  • Rejected the idea of innate ideas. 

  • Humans are born without knowledge; knowledge is acquired through experience. 

  • Two Types of Experiences:  

    • Sensation: Direct sensory input from the environment. 

    • Reflection: Mind's internal processing of sensory experiences. 

  • Distinction between simple and complex ideas:  

    • Simple ideas: Basic, elemental ideas from sensation and reflection. 

    • Complex ideas: Combinations of simple ideas formed by the mind. 

  • Association: Knowledge results from linking simple ideas to form complex ones. 

  • Primary vs. Secondary Qualities:  

    • Primary qualities: Inherent in objects (size, shape) regardless of perception. 

    • Secondary qualities: Exist only as they are perceived (color, odor). 

George Berkeley 

• Berkeley’s Theory:  

  • Agreed with Locke that all knowledge comes from experience, but rejected Locke’s distinction between primary and secondary qualities. 

  • Believed there are no primary qualities—everything depends on perception. 

  • Mentalism: All knowledge is a function of mental phenomena and dependent on the perceiving person. 

  • Perception is the only reality, and external material substance cannot be known. 

  • God is the permanent perceiver who guarantees the continuity of perceptions. 

James Mill 

• James Mill’s Theory:  

  • Argued that the mind is nothing more than a machine, passively acted upon by external stimuli. 

  • The only mental elements are sensations and ideas. 

John Stuart Mill 

• John Stuart Mill’s Theory:  

  • Opposed his father’s mechanistic view and argued the mind plays an active role in the association of ideas. 

  • Creative Synthesis:  

    • Complex ideas, formed from simple ideas, take on new qualities and are greater than the sum of their parts. 

    • Important concept for exams. 

Contemporary Psychology 

• Cognitive Psychology:  

  • Draws parallels between the mind and computer systems—both receive information, store it, and retrieve it. 

• Historical Influence of Technology:  

  • In the 17th–19th centuries, clocks and mechanical advancements were seen as metaphors for human functioning. 

Theories and Philosophical Concepts 

• Corpuscular Theory (Galileo):  

  • Matter is composed of discrete atoms that affect one another through direct contact. 

  • Aligns with Determinism (all events are caused by known factors) and Reductionism (explaining events using basic principles from another domain). 

• Materialism:  

  • Universe is explained by the existence of matter; the mind doesn’t exist as a separate entity. 

• Positivism:  

  • Recognizes only observable, objective facts. 

• Dualism (Descartes):  

  • The body is material and operates in space; the mind is non-material and the center of human reasoning. 

  • Interactive Dualism:  

    • The mind and body interact, with the mind contributing rationality and behavior while the body influences the mind. 

Differences Between Descartes and Locke 

• Descartes:  

  • Believed in interactive dualism—the mind and body influence each other. 

  • Thought the mind was responsible for thought and the body for sensory processes, perception, and movement. 

  • Suggested innate ideas existed within the mind and required experience to be triggered. 

• Locke:  

  • Rejected innate ideas; argued the mind is a clean slate at birth. 

  • Knowledge comes from sensory experience and reflection. 

  • Differentiated between simple and complex ideas. 

  • Believed primary qualities existed in objects and secondary qualities depended on perception. 

These notes cover key concepts, theories, and philosophers from Chapter 2. Let me know if you'd like any revisions! 

 Chapter 3 Notes: The Importance of the Human Observer and Early Brain Research 

The Importance of the Human Observer 

• Bessel's Observation: 

 Bessel suggested that discrepancies between astronomers were due to individual differences in perception and human characteristics, not errors.  

• Implication for Science: The role of human perception needed to be considered in all sciences, as personal characteristics and perceptions influence observations. 

• Resulting Studies: This led to research into the human sense organs to understand how they affect observations. 

Early Brain Research: Mapping from the Inside Out 

• Brain Function Research: 

 Early psychologists researched brain tissues to determine specific areas responsible for different cognitive functions. 

• Research Methods: 

  • Extirpation: Involves removing or destroying parts of an animal’s brain and observing inresulting behavior changes to determine the function of the damaged part. 

  • The Clinical Method: Posthumous brain examination to identify damaged areas linked to behavioral conditions before death. 

  • Electrical Stimulation: Weak electrical currents were used to stimulate the cerebral cortex to explore brain functions. 

Mapping from the Outside 

• Cranioscopy (Gall's Theory): 

 Gall proposed that the shape and size of the skull reflected a person’s intellectual and emotional characteristics.  

• He believed that specific characteristics corresponded to bulges in the skull in areas controlling those traits. 

• Flourens' Critique: Destroying parts of the brain using extirpation showed that skull shape does not match the contours of underlying brain tissue. 

Shocking Research on the Nervous System 

• Galvani's Research: 

 Galvani demonstrated that nerve impulses were electrical using frogs to show that muscles contracted in response to electrical stimulation.  

• Implication: The nervous system was thought to function as a conductor of electrical impulses, acting as a "switching station" for sensory and motor fibers. 

• Process of Nerve Impulse Transmission: External stimuli excite sensory organs, which transmit impulses to the brain for processing. 

The Mechanistic Spirit in Psychology 

• The 1840s Group: 

 Students committed to the belief that all phenomena could be explained by physics principles, linking physiology with physics.  

• Commitment to Mechanism: They believed organisms functioned solely through physicochemical processes, without a “vital spark.” 

Why Experimental Psychology Originated in Germany 

• German Approach to Science:  

  • Germany valued precise descriptions, classification, and the use of scientific tools to explore mental life. 

  • Universities emphasized academic freedom, allowing professors and students to pursue topics of interest freely. 

Ernest Weber's Contributions 

• Two-Point Threshold: 

 The distance between two points where a subject perceives them as two distinct sensations instead of one.  

• First Quantitative Law in Psychology: Weber's research led to the concept of the just noticeable difference (JND) — the smallest detectable difference in weight, which followed a ratio of 1:40. 

• Conclusion: The ability to discriminate sensations depends on their relative ratio, not on their absolute size. 

Mind and Body: A Quantitative Relationship 

• Fechner’s Law: 

 Fechner proposed that the intensity of a stimulus does not result in a proportional increase in sensation intensity.  

• Sensation increases are relative to the baseline level of sensation. 

• Absolute Threshold: The minimum intensity at which a stimulus can be detected. 

• Differential Threshold: The smallest detectable change in a stimulus that results in a change in sensation. 

Methods of Psychophysics 

• Psychophysics: 

 The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and mental experiences.  

• Method of Average Error/Adjustment: Subjects adjust a variable stimulus to match a constant stimulus, with errors averaged across trials to study perception. 

• Inner vs. Outer Psychophysics:  

  • Inner Psychophysics: The relationship between sensation and brain/nerve excitation. 

  • Outer Psychophysics: The relationship between physical stimulus and subjective sensation intensity. 

Bessel’s Observation of Human Error 

• Inconsistency in Observations: 

 Bessel demonstrated that differences in observation times among astronomers were due to individual differences in reaction time, showing that perceptions can vary.  

• Implication for Science: All observations, including in science, are influenced by individual differences in sensory perception. 

Mapping Brain Function and Early Methods 

• Methods of Brain Mapping:  

  • Mapping from the Inside: Research on brain tissues through techniques like extirpation and electrical stimulation. 

  • Mapping from the Outside (Cranioscopy): Gall's theory of using skull shape to infer mental characteristics. 

  • Phrenology: Popularized by Gall, claiming that the shape of the skull could predict intellectual and emotional traits. This was discredited by Pierre Flourens’ research. 

Neuromodulation and Mechanistic Views 

• Neuromodulation: 

 Electrical stimulation used to modulate brain function, particularly in the treatment of conditions like epilepsy.  

• Mechanistic View: These findings supported the mechanistic view of human nature, suggesting that brain functions could be understood in physical terms. 

Phrenology’s Popularity and Decline 

• Why Phrenology Was Popular:  

  • Gall's reputation as a comparative anatomist and the potential for an objective, materialistic analysis of the mind. 

  • Practical Applications: Used for hiring, marriage counseling, and testing intelligence, especially in American culture that valued uniqueness and individual talents. 

• Discrediting Phrenology: 

 Pierre Flourens’ research demonstrated that mental functions were not localized in the brain as Gall had proposed, leading to the decline of phrenology. 

Faculty Psychology and Brain Organization 

• Faculty Psychology: 

 Emerged after the decline of phrenology, proposing that the brain is organized into groups of cells responsible for specific functions. 

• Muller’s Influence: 

 Muller rejected vitalism and advocated for a scientific, mechanistic approach to understanding the brain. His students, including Helmholtz, Karl Ludwig, and Brucke, rejected vitalism and focused on the physical, measurable processes in organisms. 

Ernst Weber’s Two-Point Threshold and Weber’s Law 

• Two-Point Threshold: 

 Weber examined touch sensitivity by asking participants to determine whether they felt one or two points of contact using a compass.  

• Weber’s Law: The just noticeable difference (JND) between stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the initial stimulus. This established the mathematical relationship between physical stimuli and mental perception. 

These notes cover the early history of psychology's exploration of the brain, sensory perception, and the development of experimental methods in psychology. Let me know if you'd like further clarification or additional details! 

 Organized Notes: Wilhelm Wundt and His Psychology 

Wundt as the Founding Father of Psychology 

• Wundt's Role:  

  • Wundt is regarded as the "father" of psychology, unlike Fechner who did not aim to establish a new science. 

  • Fechner focused on the relationship between the mental and material world, while Wundt sought to create a new, distinct scientific discipline. 

Wundt's Views on Psychology 

• Mental Functions:  

  • Wundt believed that simpler mental functions, such as sensation and perception, could be studied using laboratory methods. 

  • Higher mental processes (e.g., learning, memory) were seen as culturally conditioned and could not be studied experimentally. They required non-experimental methods. 

• Cultural Psychology:  

  • Wundt’s cultural psychology (study of higher mental processes) was not well received in the United States as American psychologists were developing their own approaches. 

Conscious Experience and Voluntarism 

• Voluntarism:  

  • The mind is active and organizes its contents into higher-level thought processes. Wundt emphasized this active process of organizing mental elements. 

• Consciousness:  

  • Wundt believed consciousness actively organizes its own content, moving away from passive perception. 

• Types of Experience:  

  • Immediate Experience: Raw, direct sensory experience, unaltered by personal interpretation. (e.g., "the water feels warm"). 

  • Mediate Experience: Interpreted and influenced by external factors (e.g., "the water is 25°C"). 

Introspection and Research Methods 

• Introspection:  

  • Wundt emphasized introspection (self-observation) as the key method for studying consciousness. 

  • His method involved strict rules: observers must be in a state of readiness, able to repeat the observation, and must manipulate experimental conditions to ensure accuracy. 

  • The goal was to make introspection a replicable, unbiased method of observing immediate experience. 

Elements of Conscious Experience 

• Sensations and Feelings:  

  • Sensations arise from sense organ stimulation and can be categorized by intensity, duration, and modality (e.g., taste, touch, etc.). 

  • Feelings accompany sensations and are subjective, influenced by the combination of sensations. 

  • Tridimensional Theory of Feelings: Feelings can be classified along three dimensions: pleasure/displeasure, tension/relaxation, and excitement/depression. 

Organizing Conscious Experience 

• Unity of Perception:  

  • Wundt argued that perception in the real world is holistic, not just a collection of individual sensations. 

• Apperception:  

  • The mind actively organizes elementary sensations into a unified whole through a process called apperception. 

• Creative Synthesis:  

  • This is the combination of mental elements to create new qualities that are more than just the sum of the parts. 

Criticism of Wundt’s Psychology 

• Introspection: 

  • Critics argued that introspection was subjective and often led to inconsistent results. 

  • Disagreements between observers could not be resolved through replication since introspection is a private experience. 

  • Wundt acknowledged this but believed better training could improve introspection’s reliability. 

  • Psychological Methods: 

    • Wundt’s focus on introspection and his non-experimental approach to higher mental processes was criticized, particularly in the U.S. 

    • American psychologists, such as those developing functionalism and behaviorism, began to reject Wundt’s ideas in favor of more practical and objective methods. 

Wundt's Influence and the Fate of Wundtian Psychology 

• Initial Success and Decline: 

  • Wundt’s psychology was a monumental achievement, but it did not immediately succeed as a complete system. 

  • Between the World Wars, Wundt’s influence waned, particularly in the U.S., where new schools of thought (functionalism, behaviorism) emerged. 

  • Post-Wundt Developments: 

    • Psychology after Wundt saw significant rebellion against his methods and limitations:  

      • Ebbinghaus’s Learning Research (1885): Focused on experimental methods to study learning and memory, contrary to Wundt’s views. 

      • Külpe’s Imageless Thought (1894): Explored aspects of consciousness not based on sensory experience, challenging Wundt’s belief that all experience was based on sensations, feelings, and images. 

      • Criticism of Wundt’s System: 

        • The imageless thought controversy raised doubts about the validity of introspection, paving the way for behaviorism, which rejected introspection and focused on observable behavior. 

        • Biogenetic Law: Wundt’s belief that individual development recapitulates evolutionary stages was criticized and did not align with emerging ideas. 

    Key Concepts in Wundt’s Psychology 

    • Voluntarism: The active process of the mind organizing mental elements. 

    • Perception vs. Apperception:  

      • Perception is automatic, based on past experiences. 

      • Apperception involves intentional thought and interpretation. 

    • Psychophysics and Mental Chronometry:  

      • Wundt, influenced by Fechner, conducted experiments on sensory thresholds and reaction times. 

      • Mental chronometry measured the time it takes for cognitive events to occur, with different reaction times for simple and complex tasks. 

     

     

    These notes cover Wundt's contributions, his methods, criticisms, and the eventual decline of Wundtian psychology. Let me know if you need further clarification! 

 Here's an organized summary of your Chapter 5 notes: 

Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–1927) 

Altered Wundt’s System: 

• Structuralism: Titchener developed structuralism, focusing on analyzing consciousness into basic elements, in contrast to Wundt’s emphasis on organization. 

• Focus on Mental Elements: Titchener emphasized the mechanical linking of mental elements through association, while Wundt focused on apperception (how elements are organized). 

• Discarding Apperception: Titchener rejected Wundt’s doctrine of apperception, aiming to uncover the structure of consciousness. 

Titchener’s Experimentalists: 

• Formation & Exclusion of Women:  

  • In 1904, Titchener formed the Titchener Experimentalists but excluded women from attending meetings, citing their purity. 

  • He admitted women into his graduate program, offering them more PhD opportunities than any other researcher at the time. 

• Margaret Floy Washburn:  

  • Titchener’s first PhD student, the first female psychologist in the National Academy of Sciences and APA president. 

The Content of Conscious Experience 

• Titchener’s View:  

  • Conscious experience is subjective, depending on the individual’s perceptions. For example, physical temperature can be measured, but the experience of warmth is subjective. 

• Human Knowledge & Experience:  

  • Independent of the person: Experience exists independently (e.g., physical space, mass). 

  • Dependent on the person: Experience is subjective, only occurring when observed by someone (e.g., sensations of warmth). 

• Perception vs. Physical Facts:  

  • Space, Time, Mass: Constant in physics but perceived subjectively. 

  • Psychology focuses on the subjective experience of phenomena, while other sciences focus on their objective properties. 

The Stimulus Error 

• Definition: The error occurs when observers describe objects using everyday language instead of focusing on the conscious experience itself (e.g., describing an object as an "apple" instead of its sensory qualities). 

• Importance of Immediate Experience: Titchener emphasized focusing on direct sensory input, not labels or interpretations. 

• Consciousness vs. Mind:  

  • Consciousness: Immediate mental experience. 

  • Mind: Accumulation of past experiences. 

• Structural Psychology:  

  • Aimed to be a pure science, focusing only on conscious experience, not practical applications like curing mental illness or societal reform. 

Introspection in Titchener's Psychology 

• Systematic Experimental Introspection:  

  • Titchener used introspection as a method to uncover elementary sensations and images of consciousness through rigorous self-observation. 

• Focus on Components:  

  • Break down experience into its basic elements, like British empiricists and associationists. 

• Experimental Approach:  

  • Observers were trained to describe their conscious experiences in detail, focusing on sensory elements. 

  • Repeated observations allowed for clearer descriptions. 

The Elements of Consciousness 

• Three Essential Problems for Psychology: 

  1. Reduce conscious processes to their simplest components. 

  2. Determine the laws governing the association of these elements. 

  3. Connect these elements to physiological conditions. 

  • Three Elementary States of Consciousness: 

    • Sensations: Basic elements of perception. 

    • Images: Mental representations of past experiences. 

    • Affective States: Emotional experiences like love, hate, or sadness. 

    • Attributes of Sensations: 

      • Quality: What makes one sensation different from another. 

      • Intensity: Strength of a sensation. 

      • Duration: How long the sensation lasts. 

      • Clearness: The clarity of a sensation, influenced by attention. 

      • Extensity: The physical space taken up by some sensations (like vision and touch). 

      • Reduction of Consciousness: 

        • Titchener believed all conscious processes could be broken down into these attributes and identified the building blocks of consciousness, with 44,500 individual sensation qualities. 

        • Affective States: 

          • Titchener disagreed with Wundt’s multidimensional theory of emotions and proposed a single dimension: pleasure vs. displeasure. 

       

       

      Changes in Titchener’s Approach (Around 1918) 

      • Modification of Structural Psychology:  

        • Dropped the concept of mental elements and started focusing on larger mental dimensions (quality, intensity, duration, clearness, extensity). 

        • Began to question his earlier approach and shifted towards phenomenological psychology, focusing on direct experience. 

       

       

      Criticisms of Introspection 

      • Lack of Consistency:  

        • Observers often disagreed on their introspective reports, undermining the goal of creating a universal introspective language. 

      • Retrospection:  

        • Critics argued that introspection is retrospective, as observers report their experience after a delay, risking loss of detail. 

      • Alteration of Experience:  

        • The process of introspection itself may change the experience being observed (e.g., anger might be diminished by introspection). 

        • Titchener believed that with practice, introspection would not alter the experience. 

       

       

      Additional Context: 

      • Founding of Structuralism: 

        • Titchener is considered the founder of structuralism, a movement focused on describing the elements of conscious experience. 

        • In 1892, Titchener’s structuralism was established and coincided with the founding of the APA. 

        • Role of Experimentalists: 

          • Titchener's experimental psychology group met for 20 years, and after his death, women were admitted, continuing to the present day. 

          • Influence of Introspection: 

            • Titchener’s introspection focused on describing conscious experience and reducing it to elements rather than explaining it. 

         

         

        Summary of Titchener’s View of Psychology 

        • Psychology as a Science: 

          • Titchener saw psychology as the study of the generalized adult mind and sought to identify the fundamental elements of consciousness, like a chemist identifying the elements in the periodic table. 

          • Passive View of the Mind: 

            • Titchener viewed the mind as passive, with attention being an attribute of sensations rather than an active process. 

            • Focus on Immediate Experience: 

              • Unlike other sciences, psychology focuses on the immediate experience of objects, not the objects themselves. For Titchener, everyday language (which labels objects) obscures the true experience. 

              • Experimental Method: 

                • He emphasized experimental psychology, but his introspective methods faced criticism for being too subjective and inconsistent, leading to the development of other schools of thought. 

             

             

            This summary should cover the key points of Titchener’s theory and approach, structured for easy understanding. Let me know if you'd like to go deeper into any specific section! 

 Chapter 6:  

The functionalist Protest in Psychology:  

• Charles Darwin and evolution changes the focus of the new psychology from the structure of a consciousness to its functions 

• Functionalism is concerned with how the mind functions or how it is used by an organism to adapt to its environment  

• The mind was now being studied as an accumulation of functions and processes that lead to practical consequences in the real world  

• Functionalism was a protest against Wundt's experimental psychology and Titchener's structural psychology as they were seen as too restrictive  

Evolution before Darwin  

• The idea of evolution did not begin with Darwin, the suggestion that living things change with time can be traced back to fourth century BC 

• His grandfather Erasmus Darwin believed there was a god who had originally set life on earth in motion but did not intervene afterwards to alter species or create new ones  

  • So change in species over time developed in accordance with natural laws in which species were continually adapting to environmental changes  

The inevitability of Evolution  

• Jean-Baptise Lamarck  

  • Formulated a behavioural theory of evolution that emphasized the modification of an animals bodily form through its efforts to adapt to its environment  

  • Suggested that these modification were inherited by succeeding generations  

• Charles Lyell  

  • Introduced notion of evolution into geological theory, arguing that the earth had passed through various stages of development in evolving to its present structure  

• The industrial revolution lead to the growing domination of science and people were less content to base their ideas about human nature and about society on that the bible said. 

On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection  

• In nature a process of natural selection results in the survival of those organisms best suited for their environment and the elimination of those not fit  

• Species that cant adapt will not survive  

• Influence of Thomas Malthus  

  • Darwin was influences by Malthus's essay on the principle of population (1789) 

  • Malthus argued that food supple increases arithmetically, but human population grows Geometrically, leading to scarcity and completion  

  • Only the most forceful, cunning and adaptable will survive  

• Natural Selection and Evolution  

  • Darwin extended Malthus's principle to all living organisms 

  • Organisms with beneficial traits survive and pass them to their offspring  

  • Variation is a natural part of heredity, leading to gradual changes across generations  

  • Over time, these changes result in new species  

  • Darwin also accepted parts of Lamarck's theory (traits acquired during a lifetime could be inherited  

• Darwin's later works  

  • The Descent of Man (1871) 

    • Provided evidence for human evolution from lower life forms  

    • Compared animal and human mental processes  

    • Caused a mix of admiration, shock and controversy  

  • The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872) 

    • Studied emotional expressions as evolutionary traits  

    • Suggested facial expressions were innate and evolved for communication  

  • Contributions to Developmental Psychology  

    • Kept a diary of his infant sons development, published as "a Biographical Sketch of an Infant" (1877) 

    • Suggested children's development parallels human evolutionary stages  

Evolution in Action: Finches' Beaks and Minnesota Mice  

• Darwin's Observations  

  • Darwin observed variation within species on the Galapagos Islands 

  • He noted that species evolve in response to environmental changes 

• Peter and Rosemary Grans Finch Study  

  • Observed rapid evolution in response to environmental shifts  

  • Drought conditions  

    • Only finches with thicker beaks survived by cracking tough seeds 

    • The next generation had beaks 4-5% larger than pre-drought ancestors  

  • Heavy rains  

    • Large seeds; thin-beaked finches now had the advantage  

    • Selection flipped, small-beaked birds survived better 

• Evolution can happen within a few generations, not just over millennia  

• Natural selection responds directly to environmental changes 

• Animals are continually adapting to human altered landscapes   

Darwin's influence on psychology  

• Darwin's Prediction (1859)  

  • Foresaw that psychology would be based on a new foundation  

  • His ideas laid the groundwork for evolutionary psychology, which now informs all subfields of psychology  

• Darwin's Impact on Early Psychology  

  • New focus on animal psychology – studying animal behaviour became key to understanding human behaviour  

  • Shift to functionalism – emphasis on the functions of consciousness rather than its structure  

  • Acceptance of diverse research methods – Psychology expanded beyond introspection to include methods from geology, archaeology, demography, and biology  

  • Emphasis on individual differences – Darwin's observations of species variation led psychologists to study and measure how individual minds differ  

• Continuity Between Humans and Animals  

  • Darwin's theory suggested mental continuity between humans and animals 

  • Descartes argued there was a strict gap between human and animal minds, but Darwin's work challenged this view  

• Functionalism and evolutionary influence  

  • Functionalism arose as a direct response to Darwin's work, shifting focus to how humans and animals adapt to their environments   

  • Early psychologists like Wundt and Titchener focused on analyzing the structure of consciousness, but this approach faded in favour of understanding its function  

  • Evolutionary theory encouraged a broader range of research methods beyond experimental introspection  

• Individual Differences and Psychology  

  • Darwin observed variation within species recognizing that evolution depends on differences between individuals  

  • This ideas led psychologists to develop ways to measure mental and behavioural differences rather than seeking universal mental laws 

Individual Differences: Francis Galton  

• Galton's contribution to psychology  

  • Introduced mental inheritance and individual differences as key topics in psychology  

  • Applied the spirit of evolution to the study of human abilities and capacities  

  • Before Galton, individual differences were rarely studied in psychology   

• Early recognition of individual differences  

  • Juan Huarte was one of the first to recognize variations in abilities and attitudes  

  • Published the examination of talented individuals, proposing:  

    • Human capacities vary widely  

    • Children should be assessed early to guide education based on their strengths  

    • Example: a child with high musical aptitude should receive specialized training  

• Experimental psychologists and individual differences  

  • Weber, Fechner and Helmholtz noted individual differences in their research but did not study them systemically  

  • Wundt and Titchener rejected the study of individual differences, considering them outside the scope of psychology 

Mental Inheritance and Eugenics – Francis Galton  

• Heredity Genius  

  • Main argument – genius runs in families too frequently to be explained by environment alone  

  • Data showed specific types of genius were inherited 

  • At the time, women had fewer opportunities for eminence except through marriage  

• Eugenics: improving human heredity  

  • Advocated selective breeding to enhance human intelligence and abilities  

  • Suggested using intelligence tests to identify and encourage reproduction among the gifted 

  • Proposed financial incentives for highly intelligent people to marry and have children  

• Argued both physical and mental limits were fixed by heredity – effort cannot exceed genetic potential  

Statistical Methods  

• Quantification and statistical analysis  

  • Galton believed that a problem wasn’t fully solved until it was quantified and analyzed statistically  

  • Developed his own methods when existing ones were insufficient  

• Influence of Adolph Quetelet  

  • First to apply statistical methods and the normal curve to biological and social data  

  • Introduced the "average man" - most human traits cluster around the mean, with fewer at extremes  

• Galton and the normal curve  

  • Inspired by Quetelet, Galton applied the normal distribution to mental traits  

  • Suggested that human characteristics could be summarized using  

    • Mean (average value) 

    • Standard deviation (variation from the mean) 

• Discovery of correlation and regression of the mean  

  • Observed that inherited traits tend to regress toward the mean  

    • Tall fathers tend to have shorter sons, short fathers tend to have taller sons  

  • Led to modern validity, reliability and factor analysis techniques  

• Limitations of inherited traits  

  • Galton rejected the idea of natural equality – claimed differences in ability were inborn  

  • Compared mental limits to physical limits  

  • Education and environment can develop but not surpass genetic potential  

• Karl Pearson and the correlation coefficient  

  • Galton's student  

  • Developed the Pearson Correlation coefficient "r" 

  • "r" comes from regression  

Mental Tests 

• Origin of mental tests  

  • Tests of motor skills and sensory capacities; intelligence tests use more complex measures of mental abilities  

  • Coined by James McKeen Cattell but originated by Galton 

  • Galton believed intelligence could be measured through sensory capacities  

  • Based this on John Locke's empiricism – since all knowledge comes through the senses, more intelligent individuals should have superior sensory perception  

• Development of testing instruments  

  • Galton's whistle – tested the highest frequency of sound a person could hear 

  • Photometer – measured colour perception  

  • Calibrated pendulum – tested reaction time to lights and sound  

  • Kinesthetic sensitivity test – series of weights arranged by heaviness 

  • Visual estimation bar – measured ability to judge distances  

  • Olfactory discrimination bottles – tested the ability to distinguish smells  

• Modern analysis of Galton's data  

  • In 1985, psychologists analyzed Galton's original data 

  • Found strong test-retest reliability, proving statistical consistency  

  • Identified developmental trends in childhood, adolescence and adulthood  

  • His data remained valid and useful even after 100 years  

The Association of Ideas  

• Areas of study  

  • Galton investigated two key problems in association  

    • Diversity of associations – how many and what kinds of associations arise from a stimulus  

    • Reaction time – how long does it take to form associations  

• Influence of unconscious thought  

  • Galton believed his best thinking happened outside conscious awareness  

  • Published an article on the unconscious mind in the brain (1879) 

  • Influenced Sigmund Freud who later developed psychoanalytic theory  

Mental Imagery  

• First use of psychological questionnaires  

  • Galton used them to study mental imagery  

• First subjects: scientific acquaintances reported no clear mental images  

• Women and children reported vivid, detailed, and colourful images  

• Statistical analysis showed that mental imagery follows the normal distribution curve  

• Heredity and mental imagery  

  • Found that siblings were more likely to have similar mental images than unrelated people 

Animal Psychology and the Development of Functionalism  

• Darwin's Impact on Animal Psychology  

  • Before Darwin, animals were thought to be mindless automata  

  • Darwin suggested no sharp distinction between human and animal minds  

  • Humans evolved continuously from animals, meaning mental faculties exist in both  

  • Darwin argued that animals experience many emotions that humans do as well as dreams and imagination  

  • Darwin wrote that human emotions come from inherited animal behaviours  

George John Romanes and Animal Intelligence  

• Romanes contributions  

  • Published the first book on comparative psychology (1883) 

  • Goal:  

    • Demonstrate animals intelligence 

    • Show similarity between human and animal minds  

  • Mental ladder: ranked animals based on intelligence  

• Anecdotal Method and Introspection by Analogy  

  • Introspection by analogy – assumed animals had similar mental processes as humans  

  • Some followers overestimated animals intelligence, believing it could surpass the average human  

3. Lloyd Morgan and the Law of Parsimony  

• Morgans law of Parsimony  

  • Purpose: prevent excessive attribution of intelligence to animals  

  • Defintion: animal behaviour should not be explained by higher mental processes if it can be understood through simpler processes  

• Views on Romanes and Animal Psychology  

  • Did not reject anecdotal evidence entirely but wanted more scientific rigor  

  • Criticized Romanes for relying too much on causal, untrained observations  

  • Kept introspection by analogy but minimized subjective inferences  

  • Belived animal behaviour was mostly based on learning and sensory experience, not rational thought  

Chapter 7: 

Social Darwinism:  

• Core ideas  

  • Applied evolution to human character and society  

  • Coined the term "survival of the fittest" 

  • Advocated for laissez-faire economic system with no government intervention  

  • Believed human perfection was inevitable if natural selection was allowed to operate freely 

• Opposition to government Support  

  • Rejected welfare, subsidies, and regulation of business and industry  

  • Believed state assistance interfered with natural selection   

  • Unfit individuals, businesses, and institutions should be left to fail to strengthen society  

• Impact in America  

  • Ideas resonated with Americas individualistic and free-enterprise spirit  

  • Historian Frederick Jackson Turner described American pioneers as strong, inventive, and independent – qualities fitting spencer's philosophy  

• Influence on American Psychology  

  • US culture valued practicality and functionality, making it receptive to evolutionary ideas  

  • American psychology became functionalist, emphasizing adaptation and usefulness 

Synthetic Philosophy  

• Aimed to synthesize evolutionary principles with human knowledge and experience  

• Connection to psychology  

  • Proposed that the mind evolved through adaptation to the environment  

  • Emphasized the adaptive nature of mental and nervous processes  

  • Increasing complexity in behaviour results from evolutionary progress  

The continuing Evolution of Machines  

• Samuel Butlers Theory  

  • Proposed that machines evolve through natural selection and the struggle for existence 

  • Newer machines replace inferior ones, similar to biological evolution  

  • Predicted that machines would eventually simulate human intelligence  

William James (1842-1910): Anticipator of Functional Psychology  

• Major figure in American Psychology, precursor to functional psychology  

• Discovery of Psychology and teaching  

  • Was interested in altered states of consciousness  

  • Harvard became the first U.S university to offer psychology instruction - he taught the first course 

• James Legacy in Psychology  

  • Considered the greatest American psychologist for three reason:  

    • Wrote with clarity and engaging style  

    • Opposed Wundt's structuralist approach, favoring functionalism  

    • Promoted psychology as the study of human adaptation to the environment   

  • Emphasized emotion, passion, and nonrational aspects of human nature  

  • Believed consciousness was crucial for guiding survival and evolution  

The Subject Matter of Psychology: A New Look at Consciousness  

• The science of mental life  

  • William James defined psychology as the science of mental life, including its phenomena (immediate experiences) and conditions (importance of the body, especially the brain, in mental life) 

  • Psychology is concerned with what we directly experience and how physical conditions affect mental life  

• Rejection of Wundt's Approach:  

  • James rejected Wundt's idea that consciousness could be broken down into discrete elements through introspection  

  • He argued that conscious experiences are not mere collections of elements; they are direct fluid experiences 

  • James noted that experiences, such as tasting, differ depending on one's expertise  

  • This idea critiques the "psychologists' fallacy" suggesting that the elements reported by trained introspections may not be present in the same way for everyone  

• Consciousness as a continuous flow  

  • Introduced stream consciousness – describing consciousness as a continuous flow that is always changing  

  • Each thought or sensation is unique; we never experience the same one twice because intervening experiences alter it  

  • Consciousness is cumulative, not recurrent, meaning that each moment of awareness builds on the last  

• Characteristics of Consciousness  

  • Continuous: no sharp disruptions; even sleep doesn’t cause a break in the ongoing flow of consciousness 

  • Selective: consciousness selects relevant stimuli to focus on, based on what is most pertinent to the individual at that moment  

  • The mind filters, combines and rejects experiences based on relevance to facilitate logical thinking and rational decision-making  

• The Function of Consciousness  

  • Serves a biological function. Its purpose it so allow us to adapt to our environment by making choices  

  • Habits are involuntary, unconscious, and automatic, whereas conscious choices are made when new problems arise  

  • Argued that consciousness must have evolved to provide adaptive advantages for survival  

• James pointed out the difference between objective reality of an object (the same piano key) and our subjective sensations of it, which may differ based on conditions such as time of day, mood, or age 

  • Sensations are influenced by context, and our experiences of the same object may change over time  

  • Perceptions of sensations vary due to our changing sensibilities, and these variations reflect changes in our emotional and physical states over time  

• What once felt important or exciting may later seem trivial or flat, reflecting the fluid and dynamic nature of consciousness  

The Methods of Psychology  

• Introspection as a basic method  

  • Introspection involved looking into one's own mind and reporting on the states of consciousness that are discovered  

  • Beloved introspective findings could be verified by checking against other observations and comparing results from different observers to increase reliability 

• James viewed experimental research as useful for uncovering aspects of the mind that could be measured in controlled environments  

• Comparative method 

  • Using the comparative method, which involves studying different populations to observe variations in mental functioning  

  • By comparing different groups, psychology could identify meaningful differences and commonalities in mental life, leading to a broader understanding of human consciousness   

• Functionalism vs. Structuralism  

  • Structural psychology – associated with Wundt and Titchener typically focuses on introspection as the primary method  

  • Functional psychology – more eclectic and does not limit itself to one method, lke introspection. Instead it utilizes a variety of methods to study mental life  

Pragmatism  

• The idea that the validity of an idea or concept should be tested by its practical consequences  

• Ideas are judged based on their usefulness and effectiveness in real-world situations  

• Introduced by Charles Sanders Peirce  

Theories of Emotions 

• Traditional View 

  • The subjective experience of an emotion comes before the bodily expression or action  

• James' View 

  • Argued that bodily responses occur before the emotional experience  

  • Ex: upon seeing a wild animal, we first run and only then do we feel the emotion of fear  

  • Support for this 

    • Emotions wouldn’t occur without physical changes, like rapid heart rate, shallow breathing and muscle tension  

    • Without these bodily responses, emotions (such as fear or rage) would not be experienced  

• James – Lange theory of emotions: bodily changes precede emotional experiences  

The Three-Part Self  

• Material Self: refers to everything we consider our own, such as our body, family, home and possessions 

  • James emphasized that our clothing plays a significant role in shaping our material self, stating that we identify with our clothes  

• Social self: refers to the recognition we receive from others  

  • We have many social selves as we present different aspects of ourselves to different people  

• Spiritual self: refers to our inner, subjective experience and sense of self  

Habit  

• Repetitive actions become ingrained in the nervous system, making them easier to perform with less conscious attention  

• Habits increase the plasticity of neural matter, meaning they become automatic over time 

• James argued that habits keep us within the bounds of societal norms and expectations 

• Development of Habit and Character  

  • By age 25 – we form professional mannerisms and personal patterns that are hard to change 

  • By age 30 – character tends to solidify, and habits become permanent  

The Functional Inequality of Women: Mary Whiton Calkins 

• Education Barriers: 

  • Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) faced discrimination in her pursuit of higher education. 

  • Though not formally admitted to Harvard, William James supported her education and advocated for her PhD. 

  • Harvard did not award PhDs to women until 1963. 

• Contributions to Psychology: 

  • Developed the paired-associate technique for studying memory. 

  • Became the first female president of the APA. 

  • Ranked 12th among the 50 most important psychologists in the U.S. (1906). 

The Variability Hypothesis 

• Origins of the Hypothesis: 

  • Based on Darwinian ideas of male variability, which suggested that males had a wider range of development in physical and mental traits than females. 

  • Women’s traits were believed to cluster around the average, leading to the assumption that they were less capable of intellectual achievement. 

• Impact on Gender Perceptions: 

  • Women were considered intellectually and physically inferior to men, leading to the belief in functional inequality between the sexes. 

  • Phrenology and other pseudoscience reinforced this myth, claiming women had smaller, less evolved brains. 

  • Many believed education harmed women, disrupting their biology and diminishing their ability to be mothers.  

Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley (1874–1947) 

• Education & Career: 

  • Earned her PhD from the University of Chicago (1900) under John Dewey, who considered her one of his brilliant students. 

  • Led research on child welfare, vocational education, and early childhood learning. 

• Research on Sex Differences: 

  • Conducted the first experimental test of the claim that women were biologically inferior to men. 

  • Found no significant intellectual differences, but women scored slightly higher in memory and sensory perception. 

  • Attributed differences to social and environmental factors, challenging the dominant biological explanations. 

• Legacy: 

  • Pioneered research on child development, education, and vocational guidance. 

  • Mentored female psychologists despite resistance from male academics.  

Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939) 

• Career & Contributions: 

  • Earned her PhD from Columbia University (1916) under Edward L. Thorndike. 

  • Conducted empirical studies debunking the variability hypothesis, proving:  

    • Women’s intellectual and motor abilities were not affected by menstruation. 

    • Women were not inherently inferior to men, challenging beliefs about female inferiority. 

• Argued against the idea of an innate maternal instinct, stating that social and cultural factors limited women’s opportunities. 

• Criticized career counseling that restricted women to domestic roles, stating:  

G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) – Summary Notes 

• Becoming a Psychologist: 

  • Inspired by Wundt’s Physiological Psychology (1874). 

  • Studied under William James at Harvard and earned the first PhD in psychology in the U.S. (1878). 

  • Studied in Germany again, briefly worked with Wundt but focused more on physiological research. 

• Career & Contributions: 

  • Established the first U.S. psychology lab at Johns Hopkins University (1883). 

  • Founded the American Journal of Psychology (1887). 

  • Organized the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1892 and became its first president. 

• Advocated for child and adolescent psychology, emphasizing development and educational psychology. 

Hall’s Work and Recapitulation Theory 

• Evolutionary Focus: Hall’s psychology was deeply influenced by evolutionary theory, believing that mental development mirrored evolutionary stages. 

• Genetic Psychology: Studied human and animal development, focusing on childhood and adaptation. 

• Child Study Movement: Advocated for an American-centered psychology based on studying children. Used extensive questionnaires to gather data. 

• Major Work - Adolescence (1904):  

  • 1,300-page, two-volume book that sparked scientific study of adolescent psychology. 

  • Introduced Recapitulation Theory: individual development mirrors human evolutionary history, with childhood resembling primitive stages. 

  • Controversial due to its strong focus on sex; criticized by figures like Thorndike. 

The Founding of Functionalism 

• Origins: 

  • Functionalism was not intentionally founded as a new school of thought. 

  • It arose as a reaction to the rigid structure of Wundt’s psychology and Titchener’s structuralism. 

  • Functionalists aimed to modify psychology rather than replace existing systems. 

• Characteristics: 

  • Unlike structuralism, functionalism was not a single, unified system but had multiple variations. 

  • Shared a focus on studying the functions of consciousness. 

  • Emphasized how psychology could be applied to real-world problems, influencing the rise of applied psychology. 

John Dewey (1859–1952) 

• Contributions to Psychology & Education: 

  • Published Psychology (1886), the first American psychology textbook, which gained widespread success until James’s Principles of Psychology (1890). 

  • Founded a laboratory school at the University of Chicago, pioneering the progressive education movement. 

The Reflex Arc (Dewey, 1896) 

• Published in Psychological Review (1896), Dewey’s article is considered the starting point for functional psychology. 

• Critique of Reflex Arc: 

  • Dewey criticized the reflex arc concept, which was based on the stimulus-response model, as overly simplistic and reductionist (elementism, molecularism, and reductionism). 

  • He disagreed with Wundt and Titchener’s approach, which broke behavior and conscious experience into elemental parts. 

  • The Reflex as a Circle: 

    • Dewey argued that the reflex arc is more of a circle than a linear arc. 

    • A child’s perception of the flame changes after the initial pain from touching it, altering the response to the stimulus. 

    • The perception of the stimulus and the response are connected and must be viewed as a unit, rather than separate sensory experiences and actions. 

• Implication for Psychology: 

  • Behavior should be viewed in terms of its adaptive function within the environment, not as a scientific construct. 

  • Dewey proposed that psychology should study the whole organism interacting with its environment. 

The Province of Functional Psychology (Angell, 1904 & 1906) 

• Angell’s Textbook: 

  • Angell emphasized that the function of consciousness is to enhance the organism’s adaptive abilities. 

  • Psychology’s goal is to study how the mind helps the organism adjust to its environment. 

• Three Major Themes of Functional Psychology: 

  • Mental Operations: 

    • Functional psychology studies the operations of the mind, while structuralism focuses on mental elements. 

    • Functionalists seek to understand how mental processes work, what they achieve, and the conditions under which they occur. 

  • Fundamental Utilities of Consciousness: 

    • Consciousness is viewed as a tool for mediating between the organism’s needs and environmental demands. 

    • Functionalists aim to discover the essential service consciousness provides, as its survival suggests it serves an important function for the organism’s survival. 

  • Psychophysical Relations (Mind-Body): 

    • Functionalism focuses on the total relationship between the organism and its environment. 

    • It recognizes no real distinction between mind and body, viewing them as part of the same system and allowing for an easy transfer between the two. 

Dynamic Psychology 

• Core Idea: 

  • Woodworth’s dynamic psychology emphasized that behavior is influenced by both external stimuli and the organism itself, including its energy levels, experiences, and internal processes. 

  • While the stimulus-response model was key, Woodworth argued that the organism plays a crucial role in determining the response, which is often overlooked. 

  • Psychology should study both consciousness and behavior, viewing the organism as a key mediator between stimulus and response. 

• Methods & Approach: 

  • Woodworth accepted introspection alongside observational and experimental methods. He believed introspection was essential for understanding internal processes. 

  • Dynamic psychology extended the teachings of John Dewey and William James, with a focus on motivation and cause-and-effect relationships in behavior. 

  • The aim was to explore the forces that motivate human behavior, forming a subfield he called "motivology." 

Summarized Notes: Criticisms of Functionalism 

• Conflict with Structuralism: 

  • Functionalism faced strong criticism from structuralists, particularly from Titchener and his followers, leading to a division in American psychology (Cornell for structuralism vs. Chicago for functionalism). 

  • Structuralists argued that functionalism wasn't true psychology because it didn’t focus on introspective analysis of mental elements, a key method for structuralists. 

  • Functionalists, on the other hand, challenged this narrow definition of psychology. 

• Pure vs. Applied Science: 

  • Structuralists criticized functionalists for their interest in practical applications, re-igniting the debate between pure science (structuralism) and applied science (functionalism). 

  • Structuralists rejected the application of psychology to real-world problems, whereas functionalists embraced it and believed both pure and applied psychology could follow rigorous scientific methods. 

  • Functionalists argued that valid research could be conducted in practical settings (factories, offices, classrooms) as well as in laboratories. 

  • Legacy: 

    • The dispute between pure and applied science is less relevant today, as applied psychology has become widespread. 

    • Functionalism's major and lasting contribution is the widespread application of psychology to real-life problems. 

 Chapter 1 HISTORIOGRAPHY Techniques and principles of conducting historical research. ZEITGEIST Prevailing intellectual climate. PERSONALISTIC THEORY Historical change is due to great persons. NATURALISTIC THEORY Historical change is due to Zeitgeist. Chapter 2 MECHANISM Living things are best understood in terms of machines. DETERMINISM All acts are caused. REDUCTIONISM Events on one level are explained in terms of events on another level. EMPIRICISM All knowledge is due to experience. RENE DESCARTES Father of modern philosophy; solution to mind-body problem was interactive dualism. INNATE Ideas not derived from sensory experience; proposed by Rene Descartes. POSITIVISM Scientific inquiry is restricted to observable facts; proposed by Auguste Comte. MATERIALISM Only physical things truly exist. JOHN LOCKE British empiricist; argued all ideas come from experience. ASSOCIATIONISM Complex ideas arise from linking simple ideas. PRIMARY Qualities of objects that exist independent of perception; proposed by John Locke. SECONDARY Qualities of objects that exist dependent on perception; proposed by John Locke. GEORGE BERKELEY British empiricist; early proponent of mentalism. MENTALISM Perception is the only reality. DAVID HUME British empiricist; known as the ultimate sceptic. RESEMBLANCE Similarity strengthens association between ideas; proposed by David Hume. CONTIGUITY Proximity in time or space strengthens association between ideas; proposed by David Hume. DAVID HARTLEY British empiricist; began the search for biological correlates of mental events. REPETITION Frequent pairings strengthen association between two ideas; proposed by David Hartley. JAMES MILL British empiricist; his work represents the culmination of associationism. JOHN STUART MILL British empiricist; unlike father he argued mind is active in asssociation of ideas. MENTAL CHEMISTRY Simple ideas combine to form complex ideas with emergent properties; proposed by John Stuart Mill. Chapter 3 SPECIFIC NERVE ENERGY Each sensory nerve produces its own specific sensation; first proposed by Johannes Muller. CLINICAL METHOD Posthumous examination of brain structures to determine cause of a behavioral disorder; developed by Paul Broca. EXTIRPATION Destroy part of brain and observe resultant behavior change; first used by Marshall Hall and Pierre Flourens. ELECTRICAL STIMULATION Apply weak current to brain part and observe resultant behavior change; first used by Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig. PHRENOLOGY Shape of one's skull reveals one's personality; discipline founded by Franz Gall. HERMANN VON HELMHOLTZ Great scientist of 19th century; his study of human senses advanced experimental approach to psychological issues. ERNST WEBER First to demonstrate systematic relations between physical events and mental events. TWO-POINT THRESHOLD Smallest spatial distance at which two points of touch on body produce two distinct sensations. JND Psychological unit designating smallest change in level of a stimulus that can be detected. GUSTAV FECHNER Founder of psychophysics. ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD Smallest level of a stimulus that can be detected. DIFFERENTIAL THRESHOLD Smallest change in level of a stimulus that can be detected. PSYCHOPHYSICS Scientific study of relations between physical events and mental events. Chapter 4 WILHELM WUNDT Founder of psychology as independent science; associated with University of Leipzig. VOLUNTARISM School of Wilhelm Wundt based on notion of apperception. INTROSPECTION Reflection on one's subjective experience. APPERCEPTION An active process by which the mind organizes elements of experience to create a wholeness of experience. HERMANN EBBINGHAUS First to conduct experimental research on learning and memory. FRANZ BRENTANO Founder of act psychology. ACT PSYCHOLOGY School that focuses on mental activity rather than mental content. PHENOMENOLOGY Method of introspection that focuses on intact meaningful experience. OSWALD KULPE Studied higher mental processes via systematic experimental introspection; founded the Wurzburg school. SYSTEMATIC EXPERIMENTAL Method of introspection that uses retrospection about mental experience of performing a task. IMAGELESS THOUGHT A mental action with no particular referent; proposed by Oswald Kulpe. Chapter 5 STRUCTURALISM School concerned with analyzing consciousness into its component parts. EDWARD TITCHENER Founder of structuralism; associated with Cornell University. MARGARET WASHBURN Student of Edward Titchener; first woman to earn doctorate in psychology. STIMULUS ERROR Confusing object itself with one's immediate experience of it. Titchener's mental elements: Sensations, images, affective states. Titchener's characteristics of mental elements: Quality, intensity, duration, clearness. Chapter 6 FUNCTIONALISM School concerned with adaptive functions of mind; inspired by evolutionary theory. CHARLES DARWIN Wrote pioneering book about evolution called On the Origin of Species. FRANCIS GALTON First to study individual differences in human capacities. EUGENICS Selective breeding of humans to improve inherited traits; science founded by Francis Galton. REGRESSION TOWARD MEAN Tendency for extreme traits to become less extreme in one's offspring. MENTAL TESTS Assessments of motor skills and sensory capacities; concept originated by Francis Galton. GEORGE ROMANES Wrote first book on comparative psychology called Animal Intelligence. ANECDOTAL METHOD Study animal behavior through casual reports based on observation; used by George Romanes. INTROSPECTION BY ANALOGY Study animal behavior by assuming same mental processes in humans and animals; used by George Romanes. LLOYD MORGAN First to conduct large-scale experimental studies in comparative psychology. PARSIMONY LAW Never invoke higher mental process if explanation possible in terms of lower mental process; proposed by Lloyd Morgan. Chapter 7 SOCIAL DARWINISM Government should adopt laissez-faire approach to ensure survival of fittest; popularized by Herbert Spencer. SYNTHETIC PHILOSOPHY System that applies evolutionary theory to all human knowledge and experience; formulated by Herbert Spencer. WILLIAM JAMES Figure who paved the way for functionalism; introduced philosophy of pragmatism into psychology. STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS Emphasizes the unity and dynamic nature of mental life; concept originated by William James. PRAGMATISM Doctrine that equates truth with usefulness. MARY CALKINS Student of William James; first woman president of APA; made significant contributions to learning and memory. VARIABILITY HYPOTHESIS Men compared to women show wider range of physical and mental development. LETA HOLLINGWORTH Her research challenged misconceptions about women and so-called mental defectives; pioneer in area of gifted children. JOHN DEWEY Wrote seminal paper about reflex arc marking start of functionalism. JAMES ANGELL He transformed functionalism from a movement into a working school at University of Chicago. HARVEY CARR Leader of functionalism while at its peak at University of Chicago . ROBERT WOODWORTH Founder of dynamic psychology; worked in spirit of functionalism at Columbia University. DYNAMIC PSYCHOLOGY School concerned with motivation stemming from internal conditions of organism. Chapter 8 STANLEY HALL Founder of organized psychology in America. RECAPITULATION THEORY Developmental stages of human race are repeated in childhood; proposed by Stanley Hall. JAMES CATTELL Notable early ambassador of psychology in America; strongly influenced by Francis Galton. ALFRED BINET First to conduct mental tests of cognitive ability; introduced concept of mental age. MENTAL AGE Age at which children of average ability perform certain tasks. INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT Index of cognitive ability; 100 times mental age divided by chronological age. LIGHTNER WITMER Founder of clinical psychology. WALTER SCOTT Pioneer in business applications of psychology. HUGO MUNSTERBERG Succeeded William James as director of psychology laboratory at Harvard University; popularized applied psychology.