Anthropology Notes

How Did Anthropology Begin?

• Anthropology started in the 1800s in Europe and North America.

• It was a way to study and understand the differences between people.

• This happened when big changes were occurring, like new ideas about evolution and more contact with different cultures through colonialism.

Early Anthropological Concerns

• Anthropology became more professional in the mid-1800s because of factories and growing cities.

• Scientists were interested in:

  • How cities were growing and industries were developing.

  • Explaining why people were different using evolution theories.

  • How to control colonies and use their resources.

• People moving to cities caused problems like overcrowding and pollution.

• Scientists wanted to understand these changes and find solutions.

• They studied European towns to see how they worked, which led to questions about non-Western societies.

• Anthropologists started studying these societies to get a better view of how humans and cultures are organized.

The Disruptions of Industrialization

• Factories and cities changed societies in America and Europe.

• Many people moved from the countryside to work in factories, causing overcrowding and pollution.

• People wondered how these changes were affecting society.

• Scientists wanted to understand and solve these problems.

• Studying European towns led to questions about non-Western societies. (By studying how European villages and cities were organized and how they passed down their traditions, people began to ask similar questions about non-Western societies)

• Anthropologists began studying them for a broader understanding of human culture.

The Theory of Evolution

• Darwin’s idea of evolution through natural selection challenged what people believed when his book On the Origin of Species came out in 1859.

• After that, people started using evolution to help understand human culture.

• At first, some believed all societies developed in one fixed order from “simple” to “advanced ” (single ladder principle), but that idea was later rejected.

• Still, anthropologists kept using evolution to study how cultures change.

Colonial Origins of Cultural Anthropology

• Colonial governments hired anthropologists to learn more about the native people in their colonies.

• Their goal was to make the ruling country stronger, often harming the local people.

• Colonial leaders saw native customs as strange, primitive, or uncivilized.

• Some anthropologists tried to save and record native cultures before they were lost forever (this was called “salvage anthropology”).

What Do the Four Subfields of Anthropology Have in Common?

Cultural Anthropology

• It studies how people live in communities.

• Cultural anthropologists look at things like family, religion, and money.

• Before the 1970s, they mostly studied non-Western communities.

• Now, they study all kinds of groups, even in Western countries.

• They look at different things like jobs, media, and technology.

Archaeology

• It studies past cultures by digging up old sites.

• Archaeologists find objects and buildings to understand how people lived.

• Prehistoric archaeologists study times before writing.

• This is most of human history.

• Big changes they study include:

  • How people started farming, which changed society.

  • How cities grew.

• Archaeologists also dig at historical sites.

• This helps them learn about people who weren't written about in history books.

Biological (Physical) Anthropology

• It studies the biology of humans and primates.

• They study:

  • How humans evolved.

  • Health and sickness.

  • Human genes.

  • Food and habits.

  • How stress affects the body.

  • How primates behave.

Linguistic Anthropology

• It studies how people use language.

• This includes:

  • How language makes groups and identities.

  • How language organizes our world.

How the Four Fields Work Together: The Example of Race

• Biological anthropology shows there’s no scientific way to divide people by race.

• There are more differences inside racial groups than between them.

• Archaeologists study how ideas about race have shaped history.

• Cultural anthropologists study how racism affects people.

• Linguists study how language shows and creates race.

Culture

• In anthropology, culture means the things we assume are normal in a group.

• It’s learned, shared, and passed down.

• It includes ideas and ways of acting.

• Culture can mean:

  • Human ability to learn and share.

  • Specific group habits and beliefs.

Cultural Relativism

• To avoid being biased, anthropologists use cultural relativism.

• This means not judging other cultures.

• It doesn’t mean everything is okay.

• Anthropologists must avoid bias to understand cultures.

Diversity

• Anthropology helps us understand human diversity.

• It studies all kinds of differences and similarities.

• Diversity means many different ways of being human.

Change

• Anthropologists study new issues as they come up.

• Anthropology changes with the times.

• More people from different backgrounds are becoming anthropologists.

• This brings new ideas.

Holism

• Anthropology combines different studies into one.

• It looks at history, society, language, and biology.

• This helps us understand the whole human experience.

How Do Anthropologists Know What They Know?

• Anthropology uses many methods, including the scientific method.

• They do experiments and tests.

• They make theories based on evidence.

Quantitative Data Collection

• Some anthropologists use numbers and statistics.

• This helps them find patterns.

Qualitative Data Collection

• They also use detailed descriptions.

• They live with communities to understand them.

• They compare cultures.

Comparative Method

• The comparative method allows anthropologists to derive insights from careful comparisons of two or more cultures or societies.

• Comparison can reveal both similarities and differences between cultures.

• Describing other people and interpreting their actions require an understanding of their inner lives and beliefs that no scientific methodology can grasp.

How Do Anthropologists Put Their Knowledge to Work in the World?

• Anthropology is used to solve problems.

• It’s like a fifth part of anthropology.

• They use culture to help health programs.

• They protect cultural sites.

• They study things like co-sleeping.

• They help save languages.

Anthropologists in the Workplace

• Anthropology teaches you to be:

  • A good learner.

  • A pattern spotter.

  • A good listener.

  • A relationship builder.

  • Adaptable.

  • A communicator.

  • A critical thinker.

What Ethical Obligations Do Anthropologists Have?

• Ethics are important in anthropology.

• Anthropologists must respect those they study.