SCOTUS cases

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

• Background: Clarence Gideon, charged with a felony, was denied a court-appointed attorney because Florida only provided them for capital cases. He represented himself and was convicted.

• Constitutional Issue: Does the Sixth Amendment’s right to counsel apply to state courts?

• Civil Rights Impact: Expanded; guaranteed the right to counsel for defendants in criminal cases through the Fourteenth Amendment.

• Federal Power: Expanded; applied the Sixth Amendment to states via selective incorporation.

• Outcome: The Court ruled unanimously for Gideon, strengthening the right to a fair trial.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

• Background: Ernesto Miranda confessed to a crime without being informed of his rights to remain silent or to have an attorney.

• Constitutional Issue: Does the Fifth Amendment’s protection against self-incrimination apply during police interrogation?

• Civil Rights Impact: Expanded; established Miranda rights, requiring law enforcement to inform suspects of their rights.

• Federal Power: Expanded; reinforced federal oversight of state criminal procedures.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 5–4 for Miranda, emphasizing protections against self-incrimination and the right to legal counsel.

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)

• Background: Students were suspended for wearing black armbands to protest the Vietnam War, arguing it violated their First Amendment rights.

• Constitutional Issue: Does symbolic speech in schools fall under First Amendment protection?

• Civil Rights Impact: Expanded; affirmed students’ rights to free speech in schools as long as it doesn’t disrupt learning.

• Federal Power: Expanded; strengthened federal authority to protect First Amendment rights in schools.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 7–2 for Tinker, recognizing students’ constitutional rights to free expression.

New York Times v. United States (1971)

• Background: The Nixon administration attempted to prevent the New York Times and Washington Post from publishing the Pentagon Papers, citing national security concerns.

• Constitutional Issue: Did the government’s actions violate the First Amendment’s freedom of the press?

• Civil Rights Impact: Expanded; strengthened press freedom by limiting government attempts at prior restraint.

• Federal Power: Restricted; curbed the federal government’s ability to suppress information.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 6–3 for the New York Times, emphasizing the importance of a free press in a democracy.

Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972)

• Background: Amish parents refused to send their children to school past eighth grade, violating Wisconsin’s compulsory education law.

• Constitutional Issue: Did the law violate the First Amendment’s Free Exercise Clause?

• Civil Rights Impact: Expanded; upheld religious freedom by allowing exemptions from certain laws that burden religious practices.

• Federal Power: Restricted; limited the government’s ability to interfere with religious practices.

• Outcome: The Court ruled unanimously for Yoder, emphasizing the importance of religious freedom over state interests in education.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

• Background: “Jane Roe” challenged a Texas law banning abortion, arguing it violated her constitutional right to privacy.

• Constitutional Issue: Does the Constitution protect a woman’s right to an abortion under the Right to Privacy implied by the Fourteenth Amendment?

• Civil Rights Impact: Expanded; recognized a woman’s right to choose abortion during the first trimester.

• Federal Power: Expanded; limited state laws restricting abortion.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 7–2 for Roe, establishing the constitutional right to abortion. (Overturned by Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization in 2022.)

United States v. Nixon (1974)

• Background: During the Watergate scandal, President Nixon refused to release taped conversations, citing executive privilege.

• Constitutional Issue: Does executive privilege shield the president from complying with a subpoena in a criminal investigation?

• Civil Rights Impact: Neutral; focused on presidential power rather than individual rights.

• Federal Power: Restricted; affirmed that no person, including the president, is above the law.

• Outcome: The Court ruled unanimously against Nixon, forcing him to release the tapes, which led to his resignation.

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)

• Background: Allan Bakke, a white applicant, was denied admission to medical school despite having higher scores than some minority applicants admitted through an affirmative action program.

• Constitutional Issue: Did the university’s affirmative action program violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment?

• Civil Rights Impact: Mixed; upheld affirmative action but struck down racial quotas.

• Federal Power: Neutral; allowed limited use of race in admissions while maintaining oversight.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 5–4 for Bakke, allowing race to be a factor in admissions but banning strict racial quotas.

Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier (1988)

• Background: A high school principal removed articles from the school newspaper, arguing they were inappropriate. Students claimed this violated their First Amendment rights.

• Constitutional Issue: Do school officials have the authority to censor school-sponsored student publications?

• Civil Rights Impact: Restricted; limited students’ First Amendment rights in school settings.

• Federal Power: Expanded; affirmed school authority over educational materials.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 5–3 for Hazelwood, allowing schools to regulate content in school-sponsored activities.

Texas v. Johnson (1989)

• Background: Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag in protest, violating a Texas law. He argued the law infringed on his First Amendment rights.

• Constitutional Issue: Does flag burning constitute protected speech under the First Amendment?

• Civil Rights Impact: Expanded; upheld the right to symbolic speech.

• Federal Power: Restricted; limited states’ ability to punish expression, even if offensive.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 5–4 for Johnson, declaring flag burning a form of protected free speech

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

• Background: North Carolina created a bizarrely shaped majority-minority congressional district. White voters argued it was racial gerrymandering, violating the Fourteenth Amendment.

• Constitutional Issue: Did the redistricting plan violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment?

• Civil Rights Impact: Restricted; racial gerrymandering was ruled unconstitutional unless justified by a compelling state interest.

• Federal Power: Expanded; allowed federal courts to oversee redistricting cases involving race.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 5–4 for Shaw, holding that race cannot be the predominant factor in drawing districts.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

• Background: Alfonso Lopez was charged under the Gun-Free School Zones Act for bringing a gun to school, challenging the law’s constitutionality.

• Constitutional Issue: Did Congress exceed its authority under the Commerce Clause?

• Civil Rights Impact: Neutral; focused on federalism rather than individual rights.

• Federal Power: Restricted; limited Congress’s use of the Commerce Clause.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 5–4 for Lopez, stating the act was unrelated to interstate commerce and thus unconstitutional.

District of Columbia v. Heller (2008)

• Background: Dick Heller challenged a Washington, D.C., law banning handguns and requiring firearms to be kept unloaded or locked.

• Constitutional Issue: Does the Second Amendment protect an individual’s right to own firearms for self-defense?

• Civil Rights Impact: Expanded; recognized an individual right to bear arms.

• Federal Power: Restricted; limited the government’s ability to regulate firearms.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 5–4 for Heller, striking down D.C.’s handgun ban.

McDonald v. Chicago (2010)

• Background: Chicago residents challenged a handgun ban, arguing it violated the Second Amendment.

• Constitutional Issue: Does the Second Amendment apply to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment?

• Civil Rights Impact: Expanded; incorporated the Second Amendment to the states.

• Federal Power: Expanded; required states to recognize individual gun rights.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 5–4 for McDonald, applying the Second Amendment to state and local governments.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

• Background: Citizens United challenged federal restrictions on political spending by corporations and unions, arguing it violated the First Amendment.

• Constitutional Issue: Does restricting independent political expenditures by corporations violate the First Amendment?

• Civil Rights Impact: Expanded; extended free speech protections to corporate political spending.

• Federal Power: Restricted; limited government regulation of campaign finance.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 5–4 for Citizens United, allowing unlimited independent expenditures by corporations and unions.

Bush v. Gore (2000)

• Background: The 2000 presidential election came down to a Florida recount, which was challenged for unequal voting standards.

• Constitutional Issue: Did the Florida recount violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment?

• Civil Rights Impact: Neutral; focused on election procedures rather than individual rights.

• Federal Power: Expanded; the decision effectively resolved a presidential election at the federal level.

• Outcome: The Court ruled 5–4 for Bush, halting the Florida recount and effectively deciding the election in his favor.