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Memory

Topics 2.3  Introduction to Memory  

            2.4  Encoding;   

 2.5 Storing Memories  pgs 317-328        

Encoding- getting information into our brain

Storage- retaining information in our brain

Retrieval- getting information back out of our brain

parallel processing- processing multiple things at once; the usual way the brain processes multiple information at the same time 

Ex. going to the park and seeing children play, hearing the loud noises, and smelling dirt 

*sensory memory (echoic and iconic)-  immediate memory that is made (at the moment) is only remembered by a couple of seconds/minutes. With enough attention, it can go into your short term memory.  

  • Capacity is unlimited 

*Iconic memory- a form of sensory memory of visual stimuli (photographic) lasts for a tenth of a second  

Ex. reading at a page at a textbook

*Echoic memory- a form of sensory memory of auditory stimuli and last for less than 4 seconds  

Ex. Eavesdropping to a conversation between two people around you

short-term memory- a form of memory that is produced once you attentively absorb the information. Doesn’t last very long and needs to be rehearsed/practiced to encode into long-term memory  

  • Holds for 20-30 seconds 7+2 without rehearsal 

long-term memory- a form of memory that stays in your head forever. The information will always be in your head when you need to retrieve it.  

  • Capacity is unlimited 

implicit memory- nondeclarative memories (automatic processing)  

  • Occurs in the ganglia and cerebellum 

  • *Motor cognitive  skills 

  • *Time, space, frequency  

  • *Classical conditioning (reflexes) 

  • Primed responses (retrieval cues)

working memory- a complex version of short-term memory that shows how short-term memory processes visual, auditory, and retrieval information from long term memory 

-*Visual-spatial information- stores and process information in spatial/visual form

*central executive functions- control of the entire system and puts the information to the data systems  (main part of the mind)

*Auditory information- stores and processes information in auditory form

*phonological loop- stores information that utilizes info that is spoken or written 

*visuospatial sketchpad- the ability to temporarily store visual/spatial information 

Episodic memory- memory that contains information of specific events of experiences of life

Shallow to Deep memory; structural, phonemic and semantic- 

Shallow memory-structural memory (structure of letters)   

Ex. how many capital letters in CAPTAIN 

Intermediate memory- phonemic memory (remembering how it sounds)  

 Ex. SYS-TEM-MA-TIC

Deep memory- semantic memory  (able to apply the word into a sentence)  

EX. The doll sat on the bookshelf as the little girl walked in.

explicit memory- declarative memories (effortful processing) 

  • Memories of personal experiences 

  • Memories of general knowledge 

effortful processing- the processing of explicit memories (declarative memory) 

  • Occurs the hippocampus and the frontal lobes  

  • Processes personal experiences(Episodic memory) 

  •  and general knowledge (Semantic memory)

automatic memory- memories that automatically go into long-term memory (implicit memories)

working Capacity- the capacity of information  short-term/working memory can hold  

 WAYS TO REMEMBER BETTER (FIT INTO LONG TERM MEMORY)

Chunking-  a memory hack where it generalizes pieces of information into different groups that they are associated with 

Ex. DOg, CAt, monkey, mouse, zebra all are grouped together because they are animals 

Mnemonics- memory aids 

Peg-word- a memory aid that associates a word with a number so you can remember the order the words  

Ex. one,two buckle my shoe, three, four buckle some more, five, six, nike kicks

method of loci- memory aid where you associate a word with a vivid location  

Ex. dog→ a tennis shoe 

*Acronyms- memory aid associates a word with a letter in ALL caps 

Ex. FANBOYS and PEMDAS

Hierarchy- a memory aid that associates a general topic with complex pieces of information 

distributed practice- a recommended practice where you space out your learning to encode the information into your long-term memory

spacing effect-distributed practice for retention of  long term memory

  • Ex. studying for 20 minutes of a subject per a day 

*testing effect- testing your ability to to retrieve information from your long term memory

*self-referencing effect - making the information about you to help obtain information into your long-term memory better (uses semantic memory) 

*autobiographical memory - memory of your past  

Ex. your 10th birthday 

*prospective memory- memory of the future (things to do)  

*Procedural memory- long-term memory that takes part of learning motor skills  

*Eidetic imagery- photographic memory 

Episodic memory- remembering past experiences/events   

Procedural memory- retrieval of information of motor skills  

semantic memory- memory of meaning and significance of words  

Ex. needing to talk to a teacher after class 

Biological Bases for Memory   pgs 329-333      

Hippocampus- the process of the brain that controls and processes explicit memories (located in the center of the brain)

left vs right- the left hippocampus controls the visual designs, while the right hippocampus controls the verbal information   

  • Without the HIPPOCAMPUS, people are unable to form new memories 

frontal lobes- the process of the brain that controls explicit memories and retrieves them from long-term memory 

brain cortex- sends information to the basal ganglia to show how to do a certain task, but the basal ganglia doesn’t send information back to the cortex

Sleep- when you sleep the hippocampus processes information into long term memory (consolidation) 

Cerebellum- part of the brain that controls implicit memories (controls classical conditioning) 

  • Classical conditioning-natural reflexes  

Ex.  feeling excited to go on a rollercoaster 

basal ganglia- a part of the brain that controls implicit memories in motor movement 

*infantile amnesia- the inability to remember in the first 0-3 years of a person’s life 

amygdala (flashbulb memories)-the process of the brain that processing emotional experiences  

Flashbulb memories- memories heavily associated with emotions are vividly memories due to the tied emotional experience  

Ex. what you were doing before Donald Trump’s attempted assassination 

*long-term potentiation - the potential of memory sticking to you when you learn something 

  • Sleep helps consolidate the things that you learn 

  • It is always best to study an hour before bed because of this

Topic 2.6  Retrieving Memories  pgs 334-338    

*Recall- the retrieval of information that you just learned  

Ex.fill in the blank

Recognition- the retrieval of information that is associated with the information you learn  

Ex. Multiple Choice

Relearning- relearning information that was in your long-term memory before  (it is easier to retain information that you learned before in your head) 

Ex. applying the word into a sentence

*meta-cognition - an learners ability to find an effective strategy to learn and remember information

testing effect- an effect where you try to retrieve information from your long-term memory to see if you remember something or not 

Ex.Testing yourself on vocabulary you need to remember for a test 

*Priming- activates specific associations in memory unconsciously 

*Retrieval Cues - associations which helps a person remember a certain piece of information

Context-dependent- the retrieval of information where you remember once you in the same location where you encoded something in your head 

Ex. You left your toothbrush and leave the room and forgot what you were doing and then came back to the same room and it instantly came into your memory again

mood congruent memory- the retrieval of information that can be recalled once you are in a certain mood  

Ex. Being sad and thinking about your sad memories 

*serial position effect - an effect where our brains tend to remember the beginning and end of a set of information 

recency effect- the ability to recall mostly the things that was at the end of a list (usually occurs RIGHT after you processed the list)

primacy effect- the ability to recall mostly the things at the beginning of the list (usually occurs once the list leaves your mind)


 Forgetting and Memory Distortion   pgs 341-354      

 

Cognitive bias- the tendency to have bias to remember a certain thing 

-Confirmation bias- only remembering what you WANT to remember 

-Hindsight bias- current emotions and cognitive  needs rewrites memories 

Overconfidence- being overly confident leads to wrong conclusions 

anterograde amnesia- the inability to remember new information but can remember old information  

  • Damage to the hippocampus

retrograde amnesia- the inability to remember old information but can remember new information     

  • Damage to the cerebral cortex 

Forgetting- the inability to retrieve information from long-term memory  

encoding failure- short-term memory failing to encode into long-term memory properly 

storage decay- physical trace of the memory that disappears  

 -Happens in sensory, short-term memory 

retrieval failure- the inability to retrieve information from long-term memory  

  • You remember something but it can’t come out of your head 

Interference- pieces of information that distracts the brain from processing information

proactive interference- the inability to process new information because of old information processing in your brain 

retrograde interference- the inability to process old information because of new information  

Interference vs Amnesia- 

Interference is associated with PROCESSING information  

Amnesia is associated with  ENCODING AND RETRIEVING INFORMATION

*imagination inflation- imagination of false events that occurred to a person 

motivated forgetting- the idea where people purposely repress their memories 

Repression - A theory made by Freud where people purposely repress their memories  due to the anxiety they get when they recall those memories 

  • Theory later proven wrong by modern psychologists since we tend to have vivid memories of emotional tied events 

misinformation effect- an effect where you encode and retrieve wrong/false information into your brain  

  • Occurs due to encoding failures, retrieval failures, interferences 

source amnesia - amnesia of remembering a source of information (where the information came from)  

deja vu - the feeling of familiarity of something you never seen before

Principles of Repressed and Constructed Memories

  • A controversial aspect where memories are repressed due to trauma 

****Identify the contributions of key researchers in cognitive psychology***

*Hermann Ebbinghaus - a psychologist who is responsible for the understanding of the forgetting process (forgetting curve) where at first forgetting is really likely and then it stabilizes (at the next day only ⅓ was stored in long-term memory) (used nonsensical syllables in the study of the human memory). 

*Eric Kandel and James Schwartz- they did an experiment where they study a snail’s nervous system and learn that the neurotransmitters get released to the synapses, and create more connections with neurons (long-term potentiation)  

*Elizabeth Loftus- did an experiment where she would make people watch a car accident and a week later tell a group misinfo to see if once they recall again, they will accurately recall what happened or not. Learned about the misinformation effect  

Sperling- Created a partial report of an experiment where people would have to memorize 3 rows of words for 2 seconds and then based on the tone of voice, the people would have to recall a row. (Learned about how long visual-spatial memory last)

JP

Memory

Topics 2.3  Introduction to Memory  

            2.4  Encoding;   

 2.5 Storing Memories  pgs 317-328        

Encoding- getting information into our brain

Storage- retaining information in our brain

Retrieval- getting information back out of our brain

parallel processing- processing multiple things at once; the usual way the brain processes multiple information at the same time 

Ex. going to the park and seeing children play, hearing the loud noises, and smelling dirt 

*sensory memory (echoic and iconic)-  immediate memory that is made (at the moment) is only remembered by a couple of seconds/minutes. With enough attention, it can go into your short term memory.  

  • Capacity is unlimited 

*Iconic memory- a form of sensory memory of visual stimuli (photographic) lasts for a tenth of a second  

Ex. reading at a page at a textbook

*Echoic memory- a form of sensory memory of auditory stimuli and last for less than 4 seconds  

Ex. Eavesdropping to a conversation between two people around you

short-term memory- a form of memory that is produced once you attentively absorb the information. Doesn’t last very long and needs to be rehearsed/practiced to encode into long-term memory  

  • Holds for 20-30 seconds 7+2 without rehearsal 

long-term memory- a form of memory that stays in your head forever. The information will always be in your head when you need to retrieve it.  

  • Capacity is unlimited 

implicit memory- nondeclarative memories (automatic processing)  

  • Occurs in the ganglia and cerebellum 

  • *Motor cognitive  skills 

  • *Time, space, frequency  

  • *Classical conditioning (reflexes) 

  • Primed responses (retrieval cues)

working memory- a complex version of short-term memory that shows how short-term memory processes visual, auditory, and retrieval information from long term memory 

-*Visual-spatial information- stores and process information in spatial/visual form

*central executive functions- control of the entire system and puts the information to the data systems  (main part of the mind)

*Auditory information- stores and processes information in auditory form

*phonological loop- stores information that utilizes info that is spoken or written 

*visuospatial sketchpad- the ability to temporarily store visual/spatial information 

Episodic memory- memory that contains information of specific events of experiences of life

Shallow to Deep memory; structural, phonemic and semantic- 

Shallow memory-structural memory (structure of letters)   

Ex. how many capital letters in CAPTAIN 

Intermediate memory- phonemic memory (remembering how it sounds)  

 Ex. SYS-TEM-MA-TIC

Deep memory- semantic memory  (able to apply the word into a sentence)  

EX. The doll sat on the bookshelf as the little girl walked in.

explicit memory- declarative memories (effortful processing) 

  • Memories of personal experiences 

  • Memories of general knowledge 

effortful processing- the processing of explicit memories (declarative memory) 

  • Occurs the hippocampus and the frontal lobes  

  • Processes personal experiences(Episodic memory) 

  •  and general knowledge (Semantic memory)

automatic memory- memories that automatically go into long-term memory (implicit memories)

working Capacity- the capacity of information  short-term/working memory can hold  

 WAYS TO REMEMBER BETTER (FIT INTO LONG TERM MEMORY)

Chunking-  a memory hack where it generalizes pieces of information into different groups that they are associated with 

Ex. DOg, CAt, monkey, mouse, zebra all are grouped together because they are animals 

Mnemonics- memory aids 

Peg-word- a memory aid that associates a word with a number so you can remember the order the words  

Ex. one,two buckle my shoe, three, four buckle some more, five, six, nike kicks

method of loci- memory aid where you associate a word with a vivid location  

Ex. dog→ a tennis shoe 

*Acronyms- memory aid associates a word with a letter in ALL caps 

Ex. FANBOYS and PEMDAS

Hierarchy- a memory aid that associates a general topic with complex pieces of information 

distributed practice- a recommended practice where you space out your learning to encode the information into your long-term memory

spacing effect-distributed practice for retention of  long term memory

  • Ex. studying for 20 minutes of a subject per a day 

*testing effect- testing your ability to to retrieve information from your long term memory

*self-referencing effect - making the information about you to help obtain information into your long-term memory better (uses semantic memory) 

*autobiographical memory - memory of your past  

Ex. your 10th birthday 

*prospective memory- memory of the future (things to do)  

*Procedural memory- long-term memory that takes part of learning motor skills  

*Eidetic imagery- photographic memory 

Episodic memory- remembering past experiences/events   

Procedural memory- retrieval of information of motor skills  

semantic memory- memory of meaning and significance of words  

Ex. needing to talk to a teacher after class 

Biological Bases for Memory   pgs 329-333      

Hippocampus- the process of the brain that controls and processes explicit memories (located in the center of the brain)

left vs right- the left hippocampus controls the visual designs, while the right hippocampus controls the verbal information   

  • Without the HIPPOCAMPUS, people are unable to form new memories 

frontal lobes- the process of the brain that controls explicit memories and retrieves them from long-term memory 

brain cortex- sends information to the basal ganglia to show how to do a certain task, but the basal ganglia doesn’t send information back to the cortex

Sleep- when you sleep the hippocampus processes information into long term memory (consolidation) 

Cerebellum- part of the brain that controls implicit memories (controls classical conditioning) 

  • Classical conditioning-natural reflexes  

Ex.  feeling excited to go on a rollercoaster 

basal ganglia- a part of the brain that controls implicit memories in motor movement 

*infantile amnesia- the inability to remember in the first 0-3 years of a person’s life 

amygdala (flashbulb memories)-the process of the brain that processing emotional experiences  

Flashbulb memories- memories heavily associated with emotions are vividly memories due to the tied emotional experience  

Ex. what you were doing before Donald Trump’s attempted assassination 

*long-term potentiation - the potential of memory sticking to you when you learn something 

  • Sleep helps consolidate the things that you learn 

  • It is always best to study an hour before bed because of this

Topic 2.6  Retrieving Memories  pgs 334-338    

*Recall- the retrieval of information that you just learned  

Ex.fill in the blank

Recognition- the retrieval of information that is associated with the information you learn  

Ex. Multiple Choice

Relearning- relearning information that was in your long-term memory before  (it is easier to retain information that you learned before in your head) 

Ex. applying the word into a sentence

*meta-cognition - an learners ability to find an effective strategy to learn and remember information

testing effect- an effect where you try to retrieve information from your long-term memory to see if you remember something or not 

Ex.Testing yourself on vocabulary you need to remember for a test 

*Priming- activates specific associations in memory unconsciously 

*Retrieval Cues - associations which helps a person remember a certain piece of information

Context-dependent- the retrieval of information where you remember once you in the same location where you encoded something in your head 

Ex. You left your toothbrush and leave the room and forgot what you were doing and then came back to the same room and it instantly came into your memory again

mood congruent memory- the retrieval of information that can be recalled once you are in a certain mood  

Ex. Being sad and thinking about your sad memories 

*serial position effect - an effect where our brains tend to remember the beginning and end of a set of information 

recency effect- the ability to recall mostly the things that was at the end of a list (usually occurs RIGHT after you processed the list)

primacy effect- the ability to recall mostly the things at the beginning of the list (usually occurs once the list leaves your mind)


 Forgetting and Memory Distortion   pgs 341-354      

 

Cognitive bias- the tendency to have bias to remember a certain thing 

-Confirmation bias- only remembering what you WANT to remember 

-Hindsight bias- current emotions and cognitive  needs rewrites memories 

Overconfidence- being overly confident leads to wrong conclusions 

anterograde amnesia- the inability to remember new information but can remember old information  

  • Damage to the hippocampus

retrograde amnesia- the inability to remember old information but can remember new information     

  • Damage to the cerebral cortex 

Forgetting- the inability to retrieve information from long-term memory  

encoding failure- short-term memory failing to encode into long-term memory properly 

storage decay- physical trace of the memory that disappears  

 -Happens in sensory, short-term memory 

retrieval failure- the inability to retrieve information from long-term memory  

  • You remember something but it can’t come out of your head 

Interference- pieces of information that distracts the brain from processing information

proactive interference- the inability to process new information because of old information processing in your brain 

retrograde interference- the inability to process old information because of new information  

Interference vs Amnesia- 

Interference is associated with PROCESSING information  

Amnesia is associated with  ENCODING AND RETRIEVING INFORMATION

*imagination inflation- imagination of false events that occurred to a person 

motivated forgetting- the idea where people purposely repress their memories 

Repression - A theory made by Freud where people purposely repress their memories  due to the anxiety they get when they recall those memories 

  • Theory later proven wrong by modern psychologists since we tend to have vivid memories of emotional tied events 

misinformation effect- an effect where you encode and retrieve wrong/false information into your brain  

  • Occurs due to encoding failures, retrieval failures, interferences 

source amnesia - amnesia of remembering a source of information (where the information came from)  

deja vu - the feeling of familiarity of something you never seen before

Principles of Repressed and Constructed Memories

  • A controversial aspect where memories are repressed due to trauma 

****Identify the contributions of key researchers in cognitive psychology***

*Hermann Ebbinghaus - a psychologist who is responsible for the understanding of the forgetting process (forgetting curve) where at first forgetting is really likely and then it stabilizes (at the next day only ⅓ was stored in long-term memory) (used nonsensical syllables in the study of the human memory). 

*Eric Kandel and James Schwartz- they did an experiment where they study a snail’s nervous system and learn that the neurotransmitters get released to the synapses, and create more connections with neurons (long-term potentiation)  

*Elizabeth Loftus- did an experiment where she would make people watch a car accident and a week later tell a group misinfo to see if once they recall again, they will accurately recall what happened or not. Learned about the misinformation effect  

Sperling- Created a partial report of an experiment where people would have to memorize 3 rows of words for 2 seconds and then based on the tone of voice, the people would have to recall a row. (Learned about how long visual-spatial memory last)

robot