Memory
Topics 2.3 Introduction to Memory
2.4 Encoding;
2.5 Storing Memories pgs 317-328
Encoding- getting information into our brain
Storage- retaining information in our brain
Retrieval- getting information back out of our brain
parallel processing- processing multiple things at once; the usual way the brain processes multiple information at the same time
Ex. going to the park and seeing children play, hearing the loud noises, and smelling dirt
*sensory memory (echoic and iconic)- immediate memory that is made (at the moment) is only remembered by a couple of seconds/minutes. With enough attention, it can go into your short term memory.
Capacity is unlimited
*Iconic memory- a form of sensory memory of visual stimuli (photographic) lasts for a tenth of a second
Ex. reading at a page at a textbook
*Echoic memory- a form of sensory memory of auditory stimuli and last for less than 4 seconds
Ex. Eavesdropping to a conversation between two people around you
short-term memory- a form of memory that is produced once you attentively absorb the information. Doesn’t last very long and needs to be rehearsed/practiced to encode into long-term memory
Holds for 20-30 seconds 7+2 without rehearsal
long-term memory- a form of memory that stays in your head forever. The information will always be in your head when you need to retrieve it.
Capacity is unlimited
implicit memory- nondeclarative memories (automatic processing)
Occurs in the ganglia and cerebellum
*Motor cognitive skills
*Time, space, frequency
*Classical conditioning (reflexes)
Primed responses (retrieval cues)
working memory- a complex version of short-term memory that shows how short-term memory processes visual, auditory, and retrieval information from long term memory
-*Visual-spatial information- stores and process information in spatial/visual form
*central executive functions- control of the entire system and puts the information to the data systems (main part of the mind)
*Auditory information- stores and processes information in auditory form
*phonological loop- stores information that utilizes info that is spoken or written
*visuospatial sketchpad- the ability to temporarily store visual/spatial information
Episodic memory- memory that contains information of specific events of experiences of life
Shallow to Deep memory; structural, phonemic and semantic-
Shallow memory-structural memory (structure of letters)
Ex. how many capital letters in CAPTAIN
Intermediate memory- phonemic memory (remembering how it sounds)
Ex. SYS-TEM-MA-TIC
Deep memory- semantic memory (able to apply the word into a sentence)
EX. The doll sat on the bookshelf as the little girl walked in.
explicit memory- declarative memories (effortful processing)
Memories of personal experiences
Memories of general knowledge
effortful processing- the processing of explicit memories (declarative memory)
Occurs the hippocampus and the frontal lobes
Processes personal experiences(Episodic memory)
and general knowledge (Semantic memory)
automatic memory- memories that automatically go into long-term memory (implicit memories)
working Capacity- the capacity of information short-term/working memory can hold
WAYS TO REMEMBER BETTER (FIT INTO LONG TERM MEMORY)
Chunking- a memory hack where it generalizes pieces of information into different groups that they are associated with
Ex. DOg, CAt, monkey, mouse, zebra all are grouped together because they are animals
Mnemonics- memory aids
Peg-word- a memory aid that associates a word with a number so you can remember the order the words
Ex. one,two buckle my shoe, three, four buckle some more, five, six, nike kicks
method of loci- memory aid where you associate a word with a vivid location
Ex. dog→ a tennis shoe
*Acronyms- memory aid associates a word with a letter in ALL caps
Ex. FANBOYS and PEMDAS
Hierarchy- a memory aid that associates a general topic with complex pieces of information
distributed practice- a recommended practice where you space out your learning to encode the information into your long-term memory
spacing effect-distributed practice for retention of long term memory
Ex. studying for 20 minutes of a subject per a day
*testing effect- testing your ability to to retrieve information from your long term memory
*self-referencing effect - making the information about you to help obtain information into your long-term memory better (uses semantic memory)
*autobiographical memory - memory of your past
Ex. your 10th birthday
*prospective memory- memory of the future (things to do)
*Procedural memory- long-term memory that takes part of learning motor skills
*Eidetic imagery- photographic memory
Episodic memory- remembering past experiences/events
Procedural memory- retrieval of information of motor skills
semantic memory- memory of meaning and significance of words
Ex. needing to talk to a teacher after class
Biological Bases for Memory pgs 329-333
Hippocampus- the process of the brain that controls and processes explicit memories (located in the center of the brain)
left vs right- the left hippocampus controls the visual designs, while the right hippocampus controls the verbal information
Without the HIPPOCAMPUS, people are unable to form new memories
frontal lobes- the process of the brain that controls explicit memories and retrieves them from long-term memory
brain cortex- sends information to the basal ganglia to show how to do a certain task, but the basal ganglia doesn’t send information back to the cortex
Sleep- when you sleep the hippocampus processes information into long term memory (consolidation)
Cerebellum- part of the brain that controls implicit memories (controls classical conditioning)
Classical conditioning-natural reflexes
Ex. feeling excited to go on a rollercoaster
basal ganglia- a part of the brain that controls implicit memories in motor movement
*infantile amnesia- the inability to remember in the first 0-3 years of a person’s life
amygdala (flashbulb memories)-the process of the brain that processing emotional experiences
Flashbulb memories- memories heavily associated with emotions are vividly memories due to the tied emotional experience
Ex. what you were doing before Donald Trump’s attempted assassination
*long-term potentiation - the potential of memory sticking to you when you learn something
Sleep helps consolidate the things that you learn
It is always best to study an hour before bed because of this
Topic 2.6 Retrieving Memories pgs 334-338
*Recall- the retrieval of information that you just learned
Ex.fill in the blank
Recognition- the retrieval of information that is associated with the information you learn
Ex. Multiple Choice
Relearning- relearning information that was in your long-term memory before (it is easier to retain information that you learned before in your head)
Ex. applying the word into a sentence
*meta-cognition - an learners ability to find an effective strategy to learn and remember information
testing effect- an effect where you try to retrieve information from your long-term memory to see if you remember something or not
Ex.Testing yourself on vocabulary you need to remember for a test
*Priming- activates specific associations in memory unconsciously
*Retrieval Cues - associations which helps a person remember a certain piece of information
Context-dependent- the retrieval of information where you remember once you in the same location where you encoded something in your head
Ex. You left your toothbrush and leave the room and forgot what you were doing and then came back to the same room and it instantly came into your memory again
mood congruent memory- the retrieval of information that can be recalled once you are in a certain mood
Ex. Being sad and thinking about your sad memories
*serial position effect - an effect where our brains tend to remember the beginning and end of a set of information
recency effect- the ability to recall mostly the things that was at the end of a list (usually occurs RIGHT after you processed the list)
primacy effect- the ability to recall mostly the things at the beginning of the list (usually occurs once the list leaves your mind)
Forgetting and Memory Distortion pgs 341-354
Cognitive bias- the tendency to have bias to remember a certain thing
-Confirmation bias- only remembering what you WANT to remember
-Hindsight bias- current emotions and cognitive needs rewrites memories
Overconfidence- being overly confident leads to wrong conclusions
anterograde amnesia- the inability to remember new information but can remember old information
Damage to the hippocampus
retrograde amnesia- the inability to remember old information but can remember new information
Damage to the cerebral cortex
Forgetting- the inability to retrieve information from long-term memory
encoding failure- short-term memory failing to encode into long-term memory properly
storage decay- physical trace of the memory that disappears
-Happens in sensory, short-term memory
retrieval failure- the inability to retrieve information from long-term memory
You remember something but it can’t come out of your head
Interference- pieces of information that distracts the brain from processing information
proactive interference- the inability to process new information because of old information processing in your brain
retrograde interference- the inability to process old information because of new information
Interference vs Amnesia-
Interference is associated with PROCESSING information
Amnesia is associated with ENCODING AND RETRIEVING INFORMATION
*imagination inflation- imagination of false events that occurred to a person
motivated forgetting- the idea where people purposely repress their memories
Repression - A theory made by Freud where people purposely repress their memories due to the anxiety they get when they recall those memories
Theory later proven wrong by modern psychologists since we tend to have vivid memories of emotional tied events
misinformation effect- an effect where you encode and retrieve wrong/false information into your brain
Occurs due to encoding failures, retrieval failures, interferences
source amnesia - amnesia of remembering a source of information (where the information came from)
deja vu - the feeling of familiarity of something you never seen before
Principles of Repressed and Constructed Memories
A controversial aspect where memories are repressed due to trauma
****Identify the contributions of key researchers in cognitive psychology***
*Hermann Ebbinghaus - a psychologist who is responsible for the understanding of the forgetting process (forgetting curve) where at first forgetting is really likely and then it stabilizes (at the next day only ⅓ was stored in long-term memory) (used nonsensical syllables in the study of the human memory).
*Eric Kandel and James Schwartz- they did an experiment where they study a snail’s nervous system and learn that the neurotransmitters get released to the synapses, and create more connections with neurons (long-term potentiation)
*Elizabeth Loftus- did an experiment where she would make people watch a car accident and a week later tell a group misinfo to see if once they recall again, they will accurately recall what happened or not. Learned about the misinformation effect
Sperling- Created a partial report of an experiment where people would have to memorize 3 rows of words for 2 seconds and then based on the tone of voice, the people would have to recall a row. (Learned about how long visual-spatial memory last)
Memory
Topics 2.3 Introduction to Memory
2.4 Encoding;
2.5 Storing Memories pgs 317-328
Encoding- getting information into our brain
Storage- retaining information in our brain
Retrieval- getting information back out of our brain
parallel processing- processing multiple things at once; the usual way the brain processes multiple information at the same time
Ex. going to the park and seeing children play, hearing the loud noises, and smelling dirt
*sensory memory (echoic and iconic)- immediate memory that is made (at the moment) is only remembered by a couple of seconds/minutes. With enough attention, it can go into your short term memory.
Capacity is unlimited
*Iconic memory- a form of sensory memory of visual stimuli (photographic) lasts for a tenth of a second
Ex. reading at a page at a textbook
*Echoic memory- a form of sensory memory of auditory stimuli and last for less than 4 seconds
Ex. Eavesdropping to a conversation between two people around you
short-term memory- a form of memory that is produced once you attentively absorb the information. Doesn’t last very long and needs to be rehearsed/practiced to encode into long-term memory
Holds for 20-30 seconds 7+2 without rehearsal
long-term memory- a form of memory that stays in your head forever. The information will always be in your head when you need to retrieve it.
Capacity is unlimited
implicit memory- nondeclarative memories (automatic processing)
Occurs in the ganglia and cerebellum
*Motor cognitive skills
*Time, space, frequency
*Classical conditioning (reflexes)
Primed responses (retrieval cues)
working memory- a complex version of short-term memory that shows how short-term memory processes visual, auditory, and retrieval information from long term memory
-*Visual-spatial information- stores and process information in spatial/visual form
*central executive functions- control of the entire system and puts the information to the data systems (main part of the mind)
*Auditory information- stores and processes information in auditory form
*phonological loop- stores information that utilizes info that is spoken or written
*visuospatial sketchpad- the ability to temporarily store visual/spatial information
Episodic memory- memory that contains information of specific events of experiences of life
Shallow to Deep memory; structural, phonemic and semantic-
Shallow memory-structural memory (structure of letters)
Ex. how many capital letters in CAPTAIN
Intermediate memory- phonemic memory (remembering how it sounds)
Ex. SYS-TEM-MA-TIC
Deep memory- semantic memory (able to apply the word into a sentence)
EX. The doll sat on the bookshelf as the little girl walked in.
explicit memory- declarative memories (effortful processing)
Memories of personal experiences
Memories of general knowledge
effortful processing- the processing of explicit memories (declarative memory)
Occurs the hippocampus and the frontal lobes
Processes personal experiences(Episodic memory)
and general knowledge (Semantic memory)
automatic memory- memories that automatically go into long-term memory (implicit memories)
working Capacity- the capacity of information short-term/working memory can hold
WAYS TO REMEMBER BETTER (FIT INTO LONG TERM MEMORY)
Chunking- a memory hack where it generalizes pieces of information into different groups that they are associated with
Ex. DOg, CAt, monkey, mouse, zebra all are grouped together because they are animals
Mnemonics- memory aids
Peg-word- a memory aid that associates a word with a number so you can remember the order the words
Ex. one,two buckle my shoe, three, four buckle some more, five, six, nike kicks
method of loci- memory aid where you associate a word with a vivid location
Ex. dog→ a tennis shoe
*Acronyms- memory aid associates a word with a letter in ALL caps
Ex. FANBOYS and PEMDAS
Hierarchy- a memory aid that associates a general topic with complex pieces of information
distributed practice- a recommended practice where you space out your learning to encode the information into your long-term memory
spacing effect-distributed practice for retention of long term memory
Ex. studying for 20 minutes of a subject per a day
*testing effect- testing your ability to to retrieve information from your long term memory
*self-referencing effect - making the information about you to help obtain information into your long-term memory better (uses semantic memory)
*autobiographical memory - memory of your past
Ex. your 10th birthday
*prospective memory- memory of the future (things to do)
*Procedural memory- long-term memory that takes part of learning motor skills
*Eidetic imagery- photographic memory
Episodic memory- remembering past experiences/events
Procedural memory- retrieval of information of motor skills
semantic memory- memory of meaning and significance of words
Ex. needing to talk to a teacher after class
Biological Bases for Memory pgs 329-333
Hippocampus- the process of the brain that controls and processes explicit memories (located in the center of the brain)
left vs right- the left hippocampus controls the visual designs, while the right hippocampus controls the verbal information
Without the HIPPOCAMPUS, people are unable to form new memories
frontal lobes- the process of the brain that controls explicit memories and retrieves them from long-term memory
brain cortex- sends information to the basal ganglia to show how to do a certain task, but the basal ganglia doesn’t send information back to the cortex
Sleep- when you sleep the hippocampus processes information into long term memory (consolidation)
Cerebellum- part of the brain that controls implicit memories (controls classical conditioning)
Classical conditioning-natural reflexes
Ex. feeling excited to go on a rollercoaster
basal ganglia- a part of the brain that controls implicit memories in motor movement
*infantile amnesia- the inability to remember in the first 0-3 years of a person’s life
amygdala (flashbulb memories)-the process of the brain that processing emotional experiences
Flashbulb memories- memories heavily associated with emotions are vividly memories due to the tied emotional experience
Ex. what you were doing before Donald Trump’s attempted assassination
*long-term potentiation - the potential of memory sticking to you when you learn something
Sleep helps consolidate the things that you learn
It is always best to study an hour before bed because of this
Topic 2.6 Retrieving Memories pgs 334-338
*Recall- the retrieval of information that you just learned
Ex.fill in the blank
Recognition- the retrieval of information that is associated with the information you learn
Ex. Multiple Choice
Relearning- relearning information that was in your long-term memory before (it is easier to retain information that you learned before in your head)
Ex. applying the word into a sentence
*meta-cognition - an learners ability to find an effective strategy to learn and remember information
testing effect- an effect where you try to retrieve information from your long-term memory to see if you remember something or not
Ex.Testing yourself on vocabulary you need to remember for a test
*Priming- activates specific associations in memory unconsciously
*Retrieval Cues - associations which helps a person remember a certain piece of information
Context-dependent- the retrieval of information where you remember once you in the same location where you encoded something in your head
Ex. You left your toothbrush and leave the room and forgot what you were doing and then came back to the same room and it instantly came into your memory again
mood congruent memory- the retrieval of information that can be recalled once you are in a certain mood
Ex. Being sad and thinking about your sad memories
*serial position effect - an effect where our brains tend to remember the beginning and end of a set of information
recency effect- the ability to recall mostly the things that was at the end of a list (usually occurs RIGHT after you processed the list)
primacy effect- the ability to recall mostly the things at the beginning of the list (usually occurs once the list leaves your mind)
Forgetting and Memory Distortion pgs 341-354
Cognitive bias- the tendency to have bias to remember a certain thing
-Confirmation bias- only remembering what you WANT to remember
-Hindsight bias- current emotions and cognitive needs rewrites memories
Overconfidence- being overly confident leads to wrong conclusions
anterograde amnesia- the inability to remember new information but can remember old information
Damage to the hippocampus
retrograde amnesia- the inability to remember old information but can remember new information
Damage to the cerebral cortex
Forgetting- the inability to retrieve information from long-term memory
encoding failure- short-term memory failing to encode into long-term memory properly
storage decay- physical trace of the memory that disappears
-Happens in sensory, short-term memory
retrieval failure- the inability to retrieve information from long-term memory
You remember something but it can’t come out of your head
Interference- pieces of information that distracts the brain from processing information
proactive interference- the inability to process new information because of old information processing in your brain
retrograde interference- the inability to process old information because of new information
Interference vs Amnesia-
Interference is associated with PROCESSING information
Amnesia is associated with ENCODING AND RETRIEVING INFORMATION
*imagination inflation- imagination of false events that occurred to a person
motivated forgetting- the idea where people purposely repress their memories
Repression - A theory made by Freud where people purposely repress their memories due to the anxiety they get when they recall those memories
Theory later proven wrong by modern psychologists since we tend to have vivid memories of emotional tied events
misinformation effect- an effect where you encode and retrieve wrong/false information into your brain
Occurs due to encoding failures, retrieval failures, interferences
source amnesia - amnesia of remembering a source of information (where the information came from)
deja vu - the feeling of familiarity of something you never seen before
Principles of Repressed and Constructed Memories
A controversial aspect where memories are repressed due to trauma
****Identify the contributions of key researchers in cognitive psychology***
*Hermann Ebbinghaus - a psychologist who is responsible for the understanding of the forgetting process (forgetting curve) where at first forgetting is really likely and then it stabilizes (at the next day only ⅓ was stored in long-term memory) (used nonsensical syllables in the study of the human memory).
*Eric Kandel and James Schwartz- they did an experiment where they study a snail’s nervous system and learn that the neurotransmitters get released to the synapses, and create more connections with neurons (long-term potentiation)
*Elizabeth Loftus- did an experiment where she would make people watch a car accident and a week later tell a group misinfo to see if once they recall again, they will accurately recall what happened or not. Learned about the misinformation effect
Sperling- Created a partial report of an experiment where people would have to memorize 3 rows of words for 2 seconds and then based on the tone of voice, the people would have to recall a row. (Learned about how long visual-spatial memory last)
