2 National UNIFICATIONS and Diplomatic Tensions

The Prelude to World War One

The time period studied is from 1815 to 1914, culminating in the outbreak of World War One. This era is marked by significant social and political changes in Europe, with critical events such as the Crimean War, the unifications of Germany and Italy, and rising tensions in the Balkans.

Crimean War (1853-1856)

Context:

The Crimean War marked the end of nearly 50 years of relative peace in Europe that was established by the Concert of Europe. This conflict significantly redefined international alliances and power structures.

Causes:

1. Religious Tensions: The weakening power of the Ottoman Empire led to increased influence from European nations. France pressured the Ottomans to grant privileges to Roman Catholics in Jerusalem. This move antagonized Russia, which sought similar privileges for Orthodox Christians, thus intensifying religious and geopolitical disputes.

2. Russia's Interests: Russia aimed to expand its territory by weakening the Ottoman Empire, particularly focusing on strategic gains like access to the warm-water ports of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.

Opposing Sides:

• Russia: Initially alone in the conflict, Russia sought support from Austria but was met with neutrality, isolating itself.

• Alliances Against Russia: The Ottomans allied with Britain and France, who were motivated by a desire to maintain the balance of power in Europe and prevent Russian expansion.

Outcome:

The war resulted in a decisive defeat for Russia, leading to significant power realignments in Europe. The defeat dismantled the Concert of Europe framework and prompted a reconsideration of international diplomacy, highlighting the fragility of alliances.

Italian Unification

Background:

Italy was politically and geographically fragmented into several states, with the desire for unification being a strong nationalist aspiration.

Key Figures:

1. Count Cavour: The Prime Minister of Piedmont who was a master strategist, utilized diplomacy and alliances, notably with France, to enhance his position. He championed infrastructure programs to stimulate economic growth and military readiness.

2. Giuseppe Garibaldi: A prominent nationalist leader who spearheaded the unification in Southern Italy with his volunteers known as the "Red Shirts." He played a crucial role in rallying support for the unification cause.

Process:

Cavour sought French support to expel the Austrians from Northern Italy, but the alliance was fraught with challenges due to changing political landscapes. Meanwhile, nationalist uprisings in Northern Italy bolstered Cavour’s initiatives.

• Garibaldi’s campaign in the South was marked by popular support and successful engagements that culminated in his decision to surrender control to Victor Emmanuel II, symbolizing unity.

Completion:

By 1870, the withdrawal of French troops provided an opportunity for Victor Emmanuel II to declare the completion of unification, fundamentally altering the Italian political landscape.

German Unification

Background:

The Revolution of 1848 had exposed the widespread desire for a unified Germany, but initial efforts were thwarted. The movement regained momentum in the years leading up to unification.

Key Figure:

1. Otto von Bismarck: As the Chancellor of Prussia, he became the architect of German unification, employing a strategy of realpolitik that valued practical solutions over ideological commitments.

Wars for Unification:

1. Prussian-Danish War (1864): Bismarck's manipulation of alliances facilitated the reclamation of German territories from Denmark, showcasing Prussian military strength.

2. Austro-Prussian War (1866): Bismarck deliberately engineered a conflict with Austria to isolate it from German affairs, resulting in Prussian dominance and solidified alliances with Northern German states.

3. Franco-Prussian War (1870): A masterstroke of Bismarck’s diplomacy drew France into war, uniting the German states against a common enemy, leading to widespread nationalist fervor.

Results:

In 1871, after Prussia’s victory, Wilhelm I was crowned Kaiser of the newly unified Germany, and Bismarck became Chancellor, focusing on establishing diplomatic alliances to strengthen Germany’s position in Europe.

Alliances and Regional Tensions

Key Alliances Post-Unification:

1. Three Emperors' League: Comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, this alliance was focused on controlling Eastern Europe, though it was hindered by conflicting interests.

2. Reinsurance Treaty: A strategic pact between Germany and Russia aimed at ensuring mutual neutrality, reflecting Bismarck's diplomatic acumen.

3. Triple Alliance: An alliance formed by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy designed to counterbalance the influence of Russia and France, setting the stage for conflict in World War One.

Balkans Tensions:

The rise of nationalism in the Balkans led to growing demands for self-rule among various ethnic groups, further complicating regional relations.

• Congress of Berlin (1878): This congress aimed to preserve the balance of power despite nationalistic desires, resulting in dissatisfaction and increased tensions.

• Balkan Wars: The First and Second Balkan Wars significantly influenced the power dynamics in the region, leading to greater involvement from major powers and deepening the divisions that would ultimately contribute to World War One.

Conclusion:

By the time of Bismarck’s dismissal in 1890, the intricate web of alliances and regional tensions transformed Europe into a volatile landscape, complicating diplomatic relations and setting the stage for the catastrophic events of World War One.