Unit 2 - Networks of Exchange (1200-1450)

• Explain the similarities and differences among the various networks of exchange in the period from c. 1200 to c. 1450

  • A deepening and widening of networks of human interaction within and across regions contributed to cultural, technological, and biological diffusion within and between various societies.

    • Improved commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade and expanded the geographical range of existing trade routes— including the Silk Roads —promoting the growth of powerful new trading cities.

    • The growth of interregional trade in luxury goods was encouraged by innovations in previously existing transportation and commercial technologies, including the caravanserai, forms of credit, and the development of money economies.

  • Changes in trade networks resulted from and stimulated increasing productive capacity, with important implications for social and gender structures and environmental processes.

    • Demand for luxury goods increased in Afro-Eurasia. Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans and merchants expanded their production of textiles and porcelains for export; manufacture of iron and steel expanded in China.

The Silk Roads

• Silk Roads: A vast network of roads and trails that helped to facilitate trade and spread of culture + ideas (cultural diffusion)  across Eurasia in and before 1200-1450

• Mainly exchanged luxury items, such as silk to make profit from long distance traveled

• Expansion of Silk Roads

  • Grew due to innovations in commercial practice

1. Development of Money Economies

   1. Paper money used to facilitate trade

      1. Merchants could deposit and withdraw money in different locations to increase ease of travel and security of purchases

2. Increasing use of credit

   1. “Flying money” could be secured from merchant families in one region to be exchanged for coins in other regions

3. Rise of Banks

   1. Allowed to keep flow of trade

   2. Through banking houses and Bill of Exchange

• Grew due to innovations in transportation

1. Caravanserai

   1. Rest stops for traveling merchants on most common route

      1. Provided safety from bandits and plunderers

      2. Became centers of cultural diffusion and exchange

2. Saddles

   1. Helped to make riding and transportation more easy

• Allowed for more efficient transportation and trade

• Effects of the Silk Road

1. Rise of Powerful New Trading Cities

   1. Provided stops for traveling merchants along the Silk Road route

      1. Kashgar

         1. Convergence of 2 major routes

         2. Was near a river, allowing for agriculture, making it a highly popular stop

         3. Eventually became a destination itself holding profitable markets, becoming a thriving center for Islamic scholarship

      2. Samarkand

         1. Also located strategically on Silk Road route

         2. Held profound amounts of cultural exchange, relics from many different cultures and religions found

2. Increased demand for luxury goods

   1. As demand grew for luxury goods (silk and porcelain), Chinese, Indian, Persian artisans began to increase their production for these goods

   2. Shift from producing more luxury goods, Yangtze River Valley peasants began to scale back on food production to focus more on luxury goods

   3. China began to produce more goods than their own population could consume, which were then sold to distant markets (proto-industrialization) 

   4. Profit was reinvested into iron and steel production

3. Cultural Diffusion

   1. Islamic merchants spread Islam and Buddhist merchants spread Buddhism

   2. Many were exposed to newer innovation

The Mongol Empire

• Rise of the Mongols (1200-1350)

• Pastoral nomads living near the Gobi Desert

• Began with birth of Temüjin (Genghis (Chinggis) Khan)

  • Allied with powerful others, leading many military raids

    • Successful due to his different tactics

    • Different sized armies for easier control and newer weapons (longbows), skillful horse riders

  • United mongol groups under him, taking over Northern China and many

• Brutality of Mongols caused instant surrender from other places, allowing for faster gain of land

• Ended Abbasid Empire in 1258 

• As Mongol empire expanded, replaced many empires in peace (Pax Mongolica)

• After death of Chinggis, sons began to conquer more land until 1279

  • The 4 Khanates of the Mongol (military regions)

  • Adopted culture of who they ruled over

    • Kublai Khan created Yuan Dynasty in China, uniting China and elites believed he ruled under Mandate of China

• Mongols and Economics

  • Allowed for Silk Road to prosper more than it ever had

    • After Mongol had control of entire Silk Road, allowed for safer travel (Pax Mongolia)

1. Improved Infrastructure

   1. Built many bridges and repaired roads

2. Increase of Communication and Cooperation

   1. Persian and Chinese worked together, sending over artisans and intelligence

   2. Done with Yam system, relay and communication systems across empire

   3. Allowed better connectivity between more far locations, increasing trade

• Technological and Cultural Transfers

  • Had high opinion of skilled artisans and intellectuals, kept them safe during conquests

  • Mongol policy to send skilled people to all different parts of empire, encouraging transfer of technology and ideas and culture

1. Medical Knowledge

   1. Spread of medical knowledge developed by ancient Greek and Islamic scholars (were sent to west Eur)

2. Adoption of Uyghur Script

   1. Used to write language of the Mongols

   2. Used from conquered people in Central Asia

      1. Lingua Franca, widely adopted language in empire 

• Mongols facilitated many cultural transfers across many parts of Eurasia

• After fall of mongols, people under mongols wanted to unite cultures and centralized govt

The Indian Ocean Trade

• Network of sea routes that connected various states throughout Afro-Eurasia through trade

• Expanded significantly during 1200-1450

• Causes of Expansion

1. Collapse of the Mongol Empire

   1. As Mongols fell, safety of Silk Roads began to decline, leading to more emphasis on maritime trade in the Indian Ocean

2. Innovations in Commercial Practice

   1. Money economies and ability to buy goods on credit made trade easier and increased use of these routes

3. Innovations in Transportation Technologies

   1. Improvements in navigation technology (magnetic compass, astrolabe, lateen sail)

   2. Better knowledge of monsoon winds

   3. Improvements in shipbuilding (Chinese junk boat. Dhow boats)

4. Spread of Islam

   1. Facilitated trade along sea-based routes

• Goods transported were more common, such as cotton, grains, and textiles as well as some luxury items since it was not as treacherous as the Silk Roads

• Effects of Indian Ocean Trade

1. Growth of Trade-Cities and States

   1. Swahili City-states

      1. Grew power as they were located to benefit from trade in Indian Ocean

      2. Imported gold and ivory, selling slaves from interior of Africa

      3. Built public works and mosques from wealth made from trade

   2. Malacca

      1. Capital city of sultanate of Malacca

      2. Located on Strait of Malacca, allowing for expansion of power in region as they were able to tax incoming and leaving ships from Indian Ocean network

   3. Gujarat

      1. Acted as a midpoint between southeast and east China as well as Africa

      2. Massive coastline and agricultural strength inland allowed for trade of cotton textiles for gold and silver coming from Middle East

      3. Also taxed ships going in and out of the ports

2. Increased Establishment of Diasporic Communities

   1. A group of people from one place who established a home in another while retaining cultural customs

      1. Diasporic Chinese communities created in southeast Asia

      2. Diasporic Arab and Persian merchants created in east Africa

   2. Increased scope of Indian Ocean Trade and held network together

      1. Merchants interacted with government officials to facilitate trade

3. Cultural and Technological Transfers

   1. Cultural and technological exchanges are just as significant as the goods transferred over these routes

   2. Brang religion, language, and technology to other places

   3. Admiral Zheng He was commanded by Ming Dynasty to spread influence and enroll more in China’s tributary system

      1. Had 300 ships on first voyage, bringing newest military technology with him

      2. Various states began taking more significant roles in trade

The Trans-Saharan Trade 

• A series of trade routes connecting North Africa and the Mediterranean world with the interior of West Africa and the rest of sub-Saharan Africa

• Causes of Expansion

1. Innovations in Transportation Technologies

   1. Arabian Camel

   2. Saddles

   3. Caravanserai

      1. Rest stops

• Allowed for more comfortable travel, causing expansion of trade routes

• Goods

1. Gold

2. Kola Nuts

3. Horses

4. Salt

• Each region specialized in creating + growing various goods, creating demand to trade with each other, creating occasion for expansion of these networks

• Growth of Empires

1. Empire of Mali

   1. After Mali was introduced to Islam, became connected to Dar-al-Islam

   2. Religious and economic connection allowed to grow exceedingly wealth

   3. Exported goods of their owned, and gained wealth by taxing

      1. Similar to Sultanate of Malacca

   4. Mansa Musa helped to spread Islam during his hajj (pilgrimage to mecca)

      1. Gave lots of gold, possible from wealth gained in Mali

      2. Boosted Islamic education by building schools, universities, libraries, and mosques

Cultural Effects of Connectivity

• Increasing connectivity caused exchange of ideas and cultural traits (cultural diffusion)

• Trade Networks and Diffusion

1. Cultural Transfers

   1. Spread of belief systems and religion

      1. Buddhism spread from India to East Asia thru Silk Road

      2. Buddhism changed over time as it traveled (Chinese explained it with Chinese Daoism)

         1. Caused new blending of ideas (syncretism), creating Chan Buddhism

         2. Carried further into Japan, creating Zen Buddhism

      3. Spread of Islam throughout many different networks

         1. Possibility of inclusion encouraged conversion to Islam

         2. Adoption of Islam allowed for connection of Dar-al-Islam

   2. Literary and Artistic Transfers

      1. Muslims translated and commented on classical Greek and Roman philosophy in House of Wisdom

      2. Later transferred to West Europe, sparking the Renaissance period

   3. Scientific and Technological Innovations

      1. Chinese papermaking spread to Europe, and Europeans adapted and modified moveable type (increase of literacy)

      2. Spread of gunpowder from mongols and adapted by Islamic empires, then European

• Effects of Trade on Cities

  • Led to increasing wealth and power of trading cities

1. Hangzhou

   1. Situated in southern end of the Grand Canal, a precious area in Chinese trade

   2. Became one of the most prominent trading centers, leading to urbanization

2. Samarkand & Kashgar

   1. Grew in power and influence by facilitating trade over Silk Road

• Expansion of trading networks only increased influence, resulting in increase of productivity

• Cities in Decline

1. Baghdad

   1. Capital of Islamic cultural and artistic achievement

   2. Decline of Baghdad due to rise in power of Mongols

2. Constantinople

   1. Political and religious capital of Byzantine Empire

   2. Rise of Ottoman empire took over Constantinople in 1453

• Increased interregional Travel

  • Made possible by increasing security and safety of routes

1. Ibn Battuta

   1. Muslim scholar from morocco

   2. Traveled all over Dar-al-Islam

   3. Took notes about places, people, rulers, culture

   4. Made possible due to trade routes

   5. Helped develop understanding of far-fetched cultures around the world

2. Marco Polo

   1. Traveled from Italy to China

   2. Traveled throughout Indian Ocean

   3. Wrote about court of Kublai Khan and China’s power and wealth

3. Margery Kemp

   1. Christian mystic

   2. Made pilgrimages to christianity’s holy sites

      1. Jerusalem, Rome, Spain

   3. Dictated her observations to be written down

   4. Provided insights for cultural variations of how Christianity was practiced

Environmental Effects of Connectivity

• Trade routes helped introduce new crops to various places

• Agricultural Transfers

1. Bananas

   1. First domesticated in Southeast Asia, carried to Africa by Indian Ocean routes

   2. Provided prime conditions for flourishing of bananas

   3. Led to expanded diet and population growth

2. Champa Rice

   1. Introduced from Champa kingdom in Vietnam

   2. Allowed for more food production, causing population growth 

3. Citrus Fruits

   1. Introduced by Muslim merchants to European through Mediterranean routes

   2. Spread throughout Europe and North Africa

• Diffusion of Disease

  • Spread of Bubonic Plague

  • Began in 1331 from Northern China, spreading rapidly through the Silk Road and Indian Ocean routes

  • Had devastating effects on populations, killing significant amounts